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One of the hardest parts of writing a research paper can be just finding a good topic to write about. Fortunately we've done the hard work for you and have compiled a list of 113 interesting research paper topics. They've been organized into ten categories and cover a wide range of subjects so you can easily find the best topic for you.

In addition to the list of good research topics, we've included advice on what makes a good research paper topic and how you can use your topic to start writing a great paper.

What Makes a Good Research Paper Topic?

Not all research paper topics are created equal, and you want to make sure you choose a great topic before you start writing. Below are the three most important factors to consider to make sure you choose the best research paper topics.

#1: It's Something You're Interested In

A paper is always easier to write if you're interested in the topic, and you'll be more motivated to do in-depth research and write a paper that really covers the entire subject. Even if a certain research paper topic is getting a lot of buzz right now or other people seem interested in writing about it, don't feel tempted to make it your topic unless you genuinely have some sort of interest in it as well.

#2: There's Enough Information to Write a Paper

Even if you come up with the absolute best research paper topic and you're so excited to write about it, you won't be able to produce a good paper if there isn't enough research about the topic. This can happen for very specific or specialized topics, as well as topics that are too new to have enough research done on them at the moment. Easy research paper topics will always be topics with enough information to write a full-length paper.

Trying to write a research paper on a topic that doesn't have much research on it is incredibly hard, so before you decide on a topic, do a bit of preliminary searching and make sure you'll have all the information you need to write your paper.

#3: It Fits Your Teacher's Guidelines

Don't get so carried away looking at lists of research paper topics that you forget any requirements or restrictions your teacher may have put on research topic ideas. If you're writing a research paper on a health-related topic, deciding to write about the impact of rap on the music scene probably won't be allowed, but there may be some sort of leeway. For example, if you're really interested in current events but your teacher wants you to write a research paper on a history topic, you may be able to choose a topic that fits both categories, like exploring the relationship between the US and North Korea. No matter what, always get your research paper topic approved by your teacher first before you begin writing.

113 Good Research Paper Topics

Below are 113 good research topics to help you get you started on your paper. We've organized them into ten categories to make it easier to find the type of research paper topics you're looking for.

Arts/Culture

  • Discuss the main differences in art from the Italian Renaissance and the Northern Renaissance .
  • Analyze the impact a famous artist had on the world.
  • How is sexism portrayed in different types of media (music, film, video games, etc.)? Has the amount/type of sexism changed over the years?
  • How has the music of slaves brought over from Africa shaped modern American music?
  • How has rap music evolved in the past decade?
  • How has the portrayal of minorities in the media changed?

music-277279_640

Current Events

  • What have been the impacts of China's one child policy?
  • How have the goals of feminists changed over the decades?
  • How has the Trump presidency changed international relations?
  • Analyze the history of the relationship between the United States and North Korea.
  • What factors contributed to the current decline in the rate of unemployment?
  • What have been the impacts of states which have increased their minimum wage?
  • How do US immigration laws compare to immigration laws of other countries?
  • How have the US's immigration laws changed in the past few years/decades?
  • How has the Black Lives Matter movement affected discussions and view about racism in the US?
  • What impact has the Affordable Care Act had on healthcare in the US?
  • What factors contributed to the UK deciding to leave the EU (Brexit)?
  • What factors contributed to China becoming an economic power?
  • Discuss the history of Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies  (some of which tokenize the S&P 500 Index on the blockchain) .
  • Do students in schools that eliminate grades do better in college and their careers?
  • Do students from wealthier backgrounds score higher on standardized tests?
  • Do students who receive free meals at school get higher grades compared to when they weren't receiving a free meal?
  • Do students who attend charter schools score higher on standardized tests than students in public schools?
  • Do students learn better in same-sex classrooms?
  • How does giving each student access to an iPad or laptop affect their studies?
  • What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Montessori Method ?
  • Do children who attend preschool do better in school later on?
  • What was the impact of the No Child Left Behind act?
  • How does the US education system compare to education systems in other countries?
  • What impact does mandatory physical education classes have on students' health?
  • Which methods are most effective at reducing bullying in schools?
  • Do homeschoolers who attend college do as well as students who attended traditional schools?
  • Does offering tenure increase or decrease quality of teaching?
  • How does college debt affect future life choices of students?
  • Should graduate students be able to form unions?

body_highschoolsc

  • What are different ways to lower gun-related deaths in the US?
  • How and why have divorce rates changed over time?
  • Is affirmative action still necessary in education and/or the workplace?
  • Should physician-assisted suicide be legal?
  • How has stem cell research impacted the medical field?
  • How can human trafficking be reduced in the United States/world?
  • Should people be able to donate organs in exchange for money?
  • Which types of juvenile punishment have proven most effective at preventing future crimes?
  • Has the increase in US airport security made passengers safer?
  • Analyze the immigration policies of certain countries and how they are similar and different from one another.
  • Several states have legalized recreational marijuana. What positive and negative impacts have they experienced as a result?
  • Do tariffs increase the number of domestic jobs?
  • Which prison reforms have proven most effective?
  • Should governments be able to censor certain information on the internet?
  • Which methods/programs have been most effective at reducing teen pregnancy?
  • What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Keto diet?
  • How effective are different exercise regimes for losing weight and maintaining weight loss?
  • How do the healthcare plans of various countries differ from each other?
  • What are the most effective ways to treat depression ?
  • What are the pros and cons of genetically modified foods?
  • Which methods are most effective for improving memory?
  • What can be done to lower healthcare costs in the US?
  • What factors contributed to the current opioid crisis?
  • Analyze the history and impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic .
  • Are low-carbohydrate or low-fat diets more effective for weight loss?
  • How much exercise should the average adult be getting each week?
  • Which methods are most effective to get parents to vaccinate their children?
  • What are the pros and cons of clean needle programs?
  • How does stress affect the body?
  • Discuss the history of the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians.
  • What were the causes and effects of the Salem Witch Trials?
  • Who was responsible for the Iran-Contra situation?
  • How has New Orleans and the government's response to natural disasters changed since Hurricane Katrina?
  • What events led to the fall of the Roman Empire?
  • What were the impacts of British rule in India ?
  • Was the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki necessary?
  • What were the successes and failures of the women's suffrage movement in the United States?
  • What were the causes of the Civil War?
  • How did Abraham Lincoln's assassination impact the country and reconstruction after the Civil War?
  • Which factors contributed to the colonies winning the American Revolution?
  • What caused Hitler's rise to power?
  • Discuss how a specific invention impacted history.
  • What led to Cleopatra's fall as ruler of Egypt?
  • How has Japan changed and evolved over the centuries?
  • What were the causes of the Rwandan genocide ?

main_lincoln

  • Why did Martin Luther decide to split with the Catholic Church?
  • Analyze the history and impact of a well-known cult (Jonestown, Manson family, etc.)
  • How did the sexual abuse scandal impact how people view the Catholic Church?
  • How has the Catholic church's power changed over the past decades/centuries?
  • What are the causes behind the rise in atheism/ agnosticism in the United States?
  • What were the influences in Siddhartha's life resulted in him becoming the Buddha?
  • How has media portrayal of Islam/Muslims changed since September 11th?

Science/Environment

  • How has the earth's climate changed in the past few decades?
  • How has the use and elimination of DDT affected bird populations in the US?
  • Analyze how the number and severity of natural disasters have increased in the past few decades.
  • Analyze deforestation rates in a certain area or globally over a period of time.
  • How have past oil spills changed regulations and cleanup methods?
  • How has the Flint water crisis changed water regulation safety?
  • What are the pros and cons of fracking?
  • What impact has the Paris Climate Agreement had so far?
  • What have NASA's biggest successes and failures been?
  • How can we improve access to clean water around the world?
  • Does ecotourism actually have a positive impact on the environment?
  • Should the US rely on nuclear energy more?
  • What can be done to save amphibian species currently at risk of extinction?
  • What impact has climate change had on coral reefs?
  • How are black holes created?
  • Are teens who spend more time on social media more likely to suffer anxiety and/or depression?
  • How will the loss of net neutrality affect internet users?
  • Analyze the history and progress of self-driving vehicles.
  • How has the use of drones changed surveillance and warfare methods?
  • Has social media made people more or less connected?
  • What progress has currently been made with artificial intelligence ?
  • Do smartphones increase or decrease workplace productivity?
  • What are the most effective ways to use technology in the classroom?
  • How is Google search affecting our intelligence?
  • When is the best age for a child to begin owning a smartphone?
  • Has frequent texting reduced teen literacy rates?

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How to Write a Great Research Paper

Even great research paper topics won't give you a great research paper if you don't hone your topic before and during the writing process. Follow these three tips to turn good research paper topics into great papers.

#1: Figure Out Your Thesis Early

Before you start writing a single word of your paper, you first need to know what your thesis will be. Your thesis is a statement that explains what you intend to prove/show in your paper. Every sentence in your research paper will relate back to your thesis, so you don't want to start writing without it!

As some examples, if you're writing a research paper on if students learn better in same-sex classrooms, your thesis might be "Research has shown that elementary-age students in same-sex classrooms score higher on standardized tests and report feeling more comfortable in the classroom."

If you're writing a paper on the causes of the Civil War, your thesis might be "While the dispute between the North and South over slavery is the most well-known cause of the Civil War, other key causes include differences in the economies of the North and South, states' rights, and territorial expansion."

#2: Back Every Statement Up With Research

Remember, this is a research paper you're writing, so you'll need to use lots of research to make your points. Every statement you give must be backed up with research, properly cited the way your teacher requested. You're allowed to include opinions of your own, but they must also be supported by the research you give.

#3: Do Your Research Before You Begin Writing

You don't want to start writing your research paper and then learn that there isn't enough research to back up the points you're making, or, even worse, that the research contradicts the points you're trying to make!

Get most of your research on your good research topics done before you begin writing. Then use the research you've collected to create a rough outline of what your paper will cover and the key points you're going to make. This will help keep your paper clear and organized, and it'll ensure you have enough research to produce a strong paper.

What's Next?

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Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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  • Quiz: Guidelines for Choosing a Topic
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  • Quiz: Avoiding Fallacies
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  • Quiz: The Writing Assignment
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Formulating your research question (rq).

In an effort to make our handouts more accessible, we have begun converting our PDF handouts to web pages. Download this page as a PDF: Formulating Your Research Question Return to Writing Studio Handouts

In a research paper, the emphasis is on generating a unique question and then synthesizing diverse sources into a coherent essay that supports your argument about the topic. In other words, you integrate information from publications with your own thoughts in order to formulate an argument. Your topic is your starting place: from here, you will develop an engaging research question. Merely presenting a topic in the form of a question does not transform it into a good research question.

Research Topic Versus Research Question Examples

1. broad topic versus narrow question, 1a. broad topic.

“What forces affect race relations in America?”

1b. NARROWER QUESTION

“How do corporate hiring practices affect race relations in Nashville?”

The question “What is the percentage of racial minorities holding management positions in corporate offices in Nashville?” is much too specific and would yield, at best, a statistic that could become part of a larger argument.

2. Neutral Topic Versus Argumentative Question

2a. neutral topic.

“How does KFC market its low-fat food offerings?”

2b. Argumentative question

“Does KFC put more money into marketing its high-fat food offerings than its lower-fat ones?”

The latter question is somewhat better, since it may lead you to take a stance or formulate an argument about consumer awareness or benefit.

3. Objective Topic Versus Subjective Question

Objective subjects are factual and do not have sides to be argued. Subjective subjects are those about which you can take a side.

3a. Objective topic

“How much time do youth between the ages of 10 and 15 spend playing video games?”

3b. Subjective Question

“What are the effects of video-gaming on the attention spans of youth between the ages of 10 and 15?”

The first question is likely to lead to some data, though not necessarily to an argument or issue. The second question is somewhat better, since it might lead you to formulate an argument for or against time spent playing video games.

4. Open-Ended Topic Versus Direct Question

4a. open-ended topic.

“Does the author of this text use allusion?”

4b. Direct question (gives direction to research)

“Does the ironic use of allusion in this text reveal anything about the author’s unwillingness to divulge his political commitments?”

The second question gives focus by putting the use of allusion into the specific context of a question about the author’s political commitments and perhaps also about the circumstances under which the text was produced.

Research Question (RQ) Checklist

  • Is my RQ something that I am curious about and that others might care about? Does it present an issue on which I can take a stand?
  • Does my RQ put a new spin on an old issue, or does it try to solve a problem?
  • Is my RQ too broad, too narrow, or OK?
  • within the time frame of the assignment?
  • given the resources available at my location?
  • Is my RQ measurable? What type of information do I need? Can I find actual data to support or contradict a position?
  • What sources will have the type of information that I need to answer my RQ (journals, books, internet resources, government documents, interviews with people)?

Final Thoughts

The answer to a good research question will often be the THESIS of your research paper! And the results of your research may not always be what you expected them to be. Not only is this ok, it can be an indication that you are doing careful work!

Adapted from an online tutorial at Empire State College: http://www.esc.edu/htmlpages/writerold/menus.htm#develop (broken link)

Last revised: November 2022 | Adapted for web delivery: November 2022

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  • Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Published on 30 October 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 12 December 2023.

A research question pinpoints exactly what you want to find out in your work. A good research question is essential to guide your research paper , dissertation , or thesis .

All research questions should be:

  • Focused on a single problem or issue
  • Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
  • Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
  • Specific enough to answer thoroughly
  • Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
  • Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

Writing Strong Research Questions

Table of contents

How to write a research question, what makes a strong research question, research questions quiz, frequently asked questions.

You can follow these steps to develop a strong research question:

  • Choose your topic
  • Do some preliminary reading about the current state of the field
  • Narrow your focus to a specific niche
  • Identify the research problem that you will address

The way you frame your question depends on what your research aims to achieve. The table below shows some examples of how you might formulate questions for different purposes.

Using your research problem to develop your research question

Note that while most research questions can be answered with various types of research , the way you frame your question should help determine your choices.

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Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them. The criteria below can help you evaluate the strength of your research question.

Focused and researchable

Feasible and specific, complex and arguable, relevant and original.

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis – a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

As you cannot possibly read every source related to your topic, it’s important to evaluate sources to assess their relevance. Use preliminary evaluation to determine whether a source is worth examining in more depth.

This involves:

  • Reading abstracts , prefaces, introductions , and conclusions
  • Looking at the table of contents to determine the scope of the work
  • Consulting the index for key terms or the names of important scholars

An essay isn’t just a loose collection of facts and ideas. Instead, it should be centered on an overarching argument (summarised in your thesis statement ) that every part of the essay relates to.

The way you structure your essay is crucial to presenting your argument coherently. A well-structured essay helps your reader follow the logic of your ideas and understand your overall point.

A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation (‘ x affects y because …’).

A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses. In a well-designed study , the statistical hypotheses correspond logically to the research hypothesis.

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McCombes, S. (2023, December 12). Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 22 February 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/the-research-process/research-question/

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100 Questions (and Answers) About Research Methods

100 Questions (and Answers) About Research Methods

  • Neil J. Salkind
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"How do I create a good research hypothesis?"

"How do I know when my literature review is finished?"

"What is the difference between a sample and a population?"

"What is power and why is it important?"

In an increasingly data-driven world, it is more important than ever for students as well as professionals to better understand the process of research. This invaluable guide answers the essential questions that students ask about research methods in a concise and accessible way.

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"This is a concise text that has good coverage of the basic concepts and elementary principles of research methods. It picks up where many traditional research methods texts stop and provides additional discussion on some of the hardest to understand concepts."

"I think it’s a great idea for a text (or series), and I have no doubt that the majority of students would find it helpful. The material is presented clearly, and it is easy to read and understand. My favorite example from those provided is on p. 7 where the author provides an actual checklist for evaluating the merit of a study. This is a great tool for students and would provide an excellent “practice” approach to learning this skill. Over time students wouldn’t need a checklist, but I think it would be invaluable for those students with little to no research experience."

I already am using 3 other books. This is a good book though.

Did not meet my needs

I had heard good things about Salkind's statistics book and wanted to review his research book as well. The 100 questions format is cute, and may provide a quick answer to a specific student question. However, it's not really organized in a way that I find particularly useful for a more integrated course that progressively develop and builds upon concepts.

comes across as a little disorganized, plus a little too focused on psychology and statistics.

This text is a great resource guide for graduate students. But it may not work as well with undergraduates orienting themselves to the research process. However, I will use it as a recommended text for students.

Key Features

· The entire research process is covered from start to finish: Divided into nine parts, the book  guides readers from the initial asking of questions, through the analysis and interpretation of data, to the final report

· Each question and answer provides a stand-alone explanation: Readers gain enough information on a particular topic to move on to the next question, and topics can be read in any order

· Most questions and answers supplement others in the book: Important material is reinforced, and connections are made between the topics

· Each answer ends with referral to three other related questions: Readers are shown where to go for additional information on the most closely related topics

Sample Materials & Chapters

Question #16: Question #16: How Do I Know When My Literature Review Is Finished?

Question #32: How Can I Create a Good Research Hypothesis?

Question #40: What Is the Difference Between a Sample and a Population, and Why

Question #92: What Is Power, and Why Is It Important?

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How to Write a Research Paper | A Beginner's Guide

A research paper is a piece of academic writing that provides analysis, interpretation, and argument based on in-depth independent research.

Research papers are similar to academic essays , but they are usually longer and more detailed assignments, designed to assess not only your writing skills but also your skills in scholarly research. Writing a research paper requires you to demonstrate a strong knowledge of your topic, engage with a variety of sources, and make an original contribution to the debate.

This step-by-step guide takes you through the entire writing process, from understanding your assignment to proofreading your final draft.

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Table of contents

Understand the assignment, choose a research paper topic, conduct preliminary research, develop a thesis statement, create a research paper outline, write a first draft of the research paper, write the introduction, write a compelling body of text, write the conclusion, the second draft, the revision process, research paper checklist, free lecture slides.

Completing a research paper successfully means accomplishing the specific tasks set out for you. Before you start, make sure you thoroughly understanding the assignment task sheet:

  • Read it carefully, looking for anything confusing you might need to clarify with your professor.
  • Identify the assignment goal, deadline, length specifications, formatting, and submission method.
  • Make a bulleted list of the key points, then go back and cross completed items off as you’re writing.

Carefully consider your timeframe and word limit: be realistic, and plan enough time to research, write, and edit.

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There are many ways to generate an idea for a research paper, from brainstorming with pen and paper to talking it through with a fellow student or professor.

You can try free writing, which involves taking a broad topic and writing continuously for two or three minutes to identify absolutely anything relevant that could be interesting.

You can also gain inspiration from other research. The discussion or recommendations sections of research papers often include ideas for other specific topics that require further examination.

Once you have a broad subject area, narrow it down to choose a topic that interests you, m eets the criteria of your assignment, and i s possible to research. Aim for ideas that are both original and specific:

  • A paper following the chronology of World War II would not be original or specific enough.
  • A paper on the experience of Danish citizens living close to the German border during World War II would be specific and could be original enough.

Note any discussions that seem important to the topic, and try to find an issue that you can focus your paper around. Use a variety of sources , including journals, books, and reliable websites, to ensure you do not miss anything glaring.

Do not only verify the ideas you have in mind, but look for sources that contradict your point of view.

  • Is there anything people seem to overlook in the sources you research?
  • Are there any heated debates you can address?
  • Do you have a unique take on your topic?
  • Have there been some recent developments that build on the extant research?

In this stage, you might find it helpful to formulate some research questions to help guide you. To write research questions, try to finish the following sentence: “I want to know how/what/why…”

A thesis statement is a statement of your central argument — it establishes the purpose and position of your paper. If you started with a research question, the thesis statement should answer it. It should also show what evidence and reasoning you’ll use to support that answer.

The thesis statement should be concise, contentious, and coherent. That means it should briefly summarize your argument in a sentence or two, make a claim that requires further evidence or analysis, and make a coherent point that relates to every part of the paper.

You will probably revise and refine the thesis statement as you do more research, but it can serve as a guide throughout the writing process. Every paragraph should aim to support and develop this central claim.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

A research paper outline is essentially a list of the key topics, arguments, and evidence you want to include, divided into sections with headings so that you know roughly what the paper will look like before you start writing.

A structure outline can help make the writing process much more efficient, so it’s worth dedicating some time to create one.

Your first draft won’t be perfect — you can polish later on. Your priorities at this stage are as follows:

  • Maintaining forward momentum — write now, perfect later.
  • Paying attention to clear organization and logical ordering of paragraphs and sentences, which will help when you come to the second draft.
  • Expressing your ideas as clearly as possible, so you know what you were trying to say when you come back to the text.

You do not need to start by writing the introduction. Begin where it feels most natural for you — some prefer to finish the most difficult sections first, while others choose to start with the easiest part. If you created an outline, use it as a map while you work.

Do not delete large sections of text. If you begin to dislike something you have written or find it doesn’t quite fit, move it to a different document, but don’t lose it completely — you never know if it might come in useful later.

Paragraph structure

Paragraphs are the basic building blocks of research papers. Each one should focus on a single claim or idea that helps to establish the overall argument or purpose of the paper.

Example paragraph

George Orwell’s 1946 essay “Politics and the English Language” has had an enduring impact on thought about the relationship between politics and language. This impact is particularly obvious in light of the various critical review articles that have recently referenced the essay. For example, consider Mark Falcoff’s 2009 article in The National Review Online, “The Perversion of Language; or, Orwell Revisited,” in which he analyzes several common words (“activist,” “civil-rights leader,” “diversity,” and more). Falcoff’s close analysis of the ambiguity built into political language intentionally mirrors Orwell’s own point-by-point analysis of the political language of his day. Even 63 years after its publication, Orwell’s essay is emulated by contemporary thinkers.

Citing sources

It’s also important to keep track of citations at this stage to avoid accidental plagiarism . Each time you use a source, make sure to take note of where the information came from.

You can use our free citation generators to automatically create citations and save your reference list as you go.

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The research paper introduction should address three questions: What, why, and how? After finishing the introduction, the reader should know what the paper is about, why it is worth reading, and how you’ll build your arguments.

What? Be specific about the topic of the paper, introduce the background, and define key terms or concepts.

Why? This is the most important, but also the most difficult, part of the introduction. Try to provide brief answers to the following questions: What new material or insight are you offering? What important issues does your essay help define or answer?

How? To let the reader know what to expect from the rest of the paper, the introduction should include a “map” of what will be discussed, briefly presenting the key elements of the paper in chronological order.

The major struggle faced by most writers is how to organize the information presented in the paper, which is one reason an outline is so useful. However, remember that the outline is only a guide and, when writing, you can be flexible with the order in which the information and arguments are presented.

One way to stay on track is to use your thesis statement and topic sentences . Check:

  • topic sentences against the thesis statement;
  • topic sentences against each other, for similarities and logical ordering;
  • and each sentence against the topic sentence of that paragraph.

Be aware of paragraphs that seem to cover the same things. If two paragraphs discuss something similar, they must approach that topic in different ways. Aim to create smooth transitions between sentences, paragraphs, and sections.

The research paper conclusion is designed to help your reader out of the paper’s argument, giving them a sense of finality.

Trace the course of the paper, emphasizing how it all comes together to prove your thesis statement. Give the paper a sense of finality by making sure the reader understands how you’ve settled the issues raised in the introduction.

You might also discuss the more general consequences of the argument, outline what the paper offers to future students of the topic, and suggest any questions the paper’s argument raises but cannot or does not try to answer.

You should not :

  • Offer new arguments or essential information
  • Take up any more space than necessary
  • Begin with stock phrases that signal you are ending the paper (e.g. “In conclusion”)

There are four main considerations when it comes to the second draft.

  • Check how your vision of the paper lines up with the first draft and, more importantly, that your paper still answers the assignment.
  • Identify any assumptions that might require (more substantial) justification, keeping your reader’s perspective foremost in mind. Remove these points if you cannot substantiate them further.
  • Be open to rearranging your ideas. Check whether any sections feel out of place and whether your ideas could be better organized.
  • If you find that old ideas do not fit as well as you anticipated, you should cut them out or condense them. You might also find that new and well-suited ideas occurred to you during the writing of the first draft — now is the time to make them part of the paper.

The goal during the revision and proofreading process is to ensure you have completed all the necessary tasks and that the paper is as well-articulated as possible. You can speed up the proofreading process by using the AI proofreader .

Global concerns

  • Confirm that your paper completes every task specified in your assignment sheet.
  • Check for logical organization and flow of paragraphs.
  • Check paragraphs against the introduction and thesis statement.

Fine-grained details

Check the content of each paragraph, making sure that:

  • each sentence helps support the topic sentence.
  • no unnecessary or irrelevant information is present.
  • all technical terms your audience might not know are identified.

Next, think about sentence structure , grammatical errors, and formatting . Check that you have correctly used transition words and phrases to show the connections between your ideas. Look for typos, cut unnecessary words, and check for consistency in aspects such as heading formatting and spellings .

Finally, you need to make sure your paper is correctly formatted according to the rules of the citation style you are using. For example, you might need to include an MLA heading  or create an APA title page .

Scribbr’s professional editors can help with the revision process with our award-winning proofreading services.

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Checklist: Research paper

I have followed all instructions in the assignment sheet.

My introduction presents my topic in an engaging way and provides necessary background information.

My introduction presents a clear, focused research problem and/or thesis statement .

My paper is logically organized using paragraphs and (if relevant) section headings .

Each paragraph is clearly focused on one central idea, expressed in a clear topic sentence .

Each paragraph is relevant to my research problem or thesis statement.

I have used appropriate transitions  to clarify the connections between sections, paragraphs, and sentences.

My conclusion provides a concise answer to the research question or emphasizes how the thesis has been supported.

My conclusion shows how my research has contributed to knowledge or understanding of my topic.

My conclusion does not present any new points or information essential to my argument.

I have provided an in-text citation every time I refer to ideas or information from a source.

I have included a reference list at the end of my paper, consistently formatted according to a specific citation style .

I have thoroughly revised my paper and addressed any feedback from my professor or supervisor.

I have followed all formatting guidelines (page numbers, headers, spacing, etc.).

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Research Foundations: Chapter 1 Self Quiz

  • Information Literacy
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  • The Pre-Research Process
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  • Chapter 5 Self Quiz

Chapter 1 Self-Quiz

Now that you have learned how to identify and evaluate different forms and formats of information, take this self-quiz to test your knowledge! 

  • << Previous: Evaluate Information
  • Next: 2. Begin Your Research >>
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Scientific Writing: Peer Review and Scientific Journals

by Natalie H. Kuldell

  • Peer review can best be summarized as: a process for evaluating the safety of boat docks. a process by which independent scientists evaluate the technical merit of scientific research papers. a process by which a scientist's friends can give him or her advice. a method of typesetting in publishing.
  • The process of peer review always ensures that a scientific paper is correct. true false
  • One of the main purposes for including a "Materials and Methods" section in a paper is: to advertise scientific products. to demonstrate that your methods are superior to other scientists' methods. to allow other scientists to reproduce your findings. for no reason; most journals do not require this section.
  • The main purpose of a "References" section in a scientific paper: is to acknowledge your colleagues who gave you advice. is to present other papers that the reader might want to consult. is to provide a list of scientists who have repeated your research. is to acknowledge research and concepts upon which your work builds.
  • Tables and figures are used in a scientific paper to present and explain research results. true false
  • Often, one of the best places to start reading an article is: at the end, in the "Discussion" section. at a random spot in the middle of the article. in the "Materials and Methods" section. in the "References" section.

What Should I Research? Quiz

What Should I Research? Quiz - Quiz

Are you stuck wondering what to research for your next project or even your dissertation? Look no further! Welcome to the "What Should I Research? Quiz," where we'll help you discover the perfect topic that matches your interests and goals. This engaging and interactive quiz is designed to guide you through a series of thought-provoking questions, unlocking a world of exciting research possibilities along the way. From the depths of history to cutting-edge technologies, this quiz will tap into your curiosity and provide tailored suggestions to inspire your academic journey. So, whether you're a student, a professional, or simply Read more a knowledge seeker, let this quiz be your compass to navigate the vast sea of research possibilities. Don't waste any more time contemplating. Take the "What Should I Research? Quiz" today and unlock your dissertation's true potential!

What is your favorite subject in school? - ProProfs

What is your favorite subject in school?

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Creative Writing

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After school, you are most likely to be:

Play video games

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Which of the following would you likely want to do for a living?

A Ghost Chaser

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Which kind of book would you pick to do a book report about?

A book of knowledge

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A non-fiction one

Autobiography of an Athlete

A computer programming book

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Which movie would you pick to watch? 

Well dressed people partying

Life Lessons

Historic events

The person whom you admire the most is: - ProProfs

The person whom you admire the most is:

An inventer

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On a first date, you would most likely want to: - ProProfs

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Go to a basketball game

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A new computer

An E-Reader

A vacation to the original 13 states

A rocketship

The latest sports equipment

Which of these stores do you like the most?  - ProProfs

Which of these stores do you like the most? 

Kansas Sampler

Barnes and Noble

American Eagle

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What is the one word your friend would describe you? 

Interesting

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Writing a Research Paper

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10 questions

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What rule is best when choosing your research topic?

Choose something that everyone has written about that way you know there will be information

Choose a topic that is broad so you won't run out of things to talk about

Most of your ideas are bad ones so just go with the first one

Choose a narrow topic that you can explore in detail and may be original to you

Why is the thesis statement important to a research paper?

It will save you writing time and guide your research making your paper better

It is the first thing people will read

It explains everything

How long should your thesis statement be?

A whole paragraph

One sentence

Two sentences

One is generally best, but the important thing is to have a clear thesis, so it takes however many sentences that takes

What is the main goal of the thesis statement?

Reveal what position you are taking and how you will evaluate the topic

Help you remember what you are writing about and stay on topic

Give you something to revise and edit as you write

There is no goal. It's just something you have to do

A good thesis statement never needs revising or editing.

What is the goal of the introductory paragraph in a research paper?

Identify the points the rest of the paper will cover

Ask a question that the paper will answer

Summarize everything the paper was about

Tell what you knew before you did research

Why is outlining important for a research paper

I have to turn it in for a grade

Research papers are too long to do without one

Gives you a guide to follow and exposes where you may need to do more research

Outlines are just busy work

Why should you be researching and writing your rough draft simultaneously?

Speeds things up to do two things at once

Research guides your writing and writing shows what you may still need to research

Multitasking is always a bad idea

Cleaning up grammar mistakes as you go makes editing easier

Why are revising and editing two different things that must be done at two different time?

Revising is fixing grammar and editing is making sure the paper makes sense

Revising is checking for cohesion and editing is fixing grammar mistakes

They are the same thing and can be done at the same time

Nobody has time to do them at the same time

Your research paper should be about?

Something that interests you

Something that interests your teacher

Whatever the teacher told you to write about

Something everybody finds interesting

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Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology

Student resources, multiple choice questions.

Revise your knowledge with these multiple choice quiz questions.

Chapter 2: Research in Psychology: Objectives and Ideals

Chapter 3: Research Methods  

Chapter 4: Experimental Design

Chapter 5: Survey Design

Chapter 6: Descriptive Statistics

Chapter 7: Some Principles of Statistical Inference    

Chapter 8: Examining Differences between Means: The t -test

Chapter 9: Examining Relationships between Variables: Correlation    

Chapter 10: Comparing Two or More Means by Analysing Variances: ANOVA    

Chapter 11: Analysing Other Forms of Data: Chi-square and Distribution-free Tests

Chapter 12: Classical Qualitative Methods

Chapter 13: Contextual Qualitative Methods

Chapter 14: Research Ethics    

Chapter 15: Conclusion: Managing Uncertainty in Psychological Research

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Title: an interactive agent foundation model.

Abstract: The development of artificial intelligence systems is transitioning from creating static, task-specific models to dynamic, agent-based systems capable of performing well in a wide range of applications. We propose an Interactive Agent Foundation Model that uses a novel multi-task agent training paradigm for training AI agents across a wide range of domains, datasets, and tasks. Our training paradigm unifies diverse pre-training strategies, including visual masked auto-encoders, language modeling, and next-action prediction, enabling a versatile and adaptable AI framework. We demonstrate the performance of our framework across three separate domains -- Robotics, Gaming AI, and Healthcare. Our model demonstrates its ability to generate meaningful and contextually relevant outputs in each area. The strength of our approach lies in its generality, leveraging a variety of data sources such as robotics sequences, gameplay data, large-scale video datasets, and textual information for effective multimodal and multi-task learning. Our approach provides a promising avenue for developing generalist, action-taking, multimodal systems.

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Research Beyond the Obvious!

Are you struggling to find a topic that can unearth new findings? Even before starting, many students feel drowning with the mere task of sorting out the best research topics. Don’t fret! This blog explores the top 10 research topics for students, with a focus on different subjects, including psychology, social sciences, etc. From exploring the impact of AI to dealing with social issues, let’s discover good ideas for a research paper! 

Why Do You Need to Find a Research Topic?

Before we get down to the top 10 research topics for students, let’s understand what they are. Research topics help students to drill down into a subject and break down a wide aspect into smaller things. The topics serve the purpose of bringing fresh perspectives to the table and point out a potential knowledge gap or core problem. 

Research Topic vs. Research Question 

Going by its definition, a research topic focuses on a broad theme that calls for deep investigation. On the other hand, a research question is a particular query that researchers use to find plausible answers and new scopes. While you may be busy finding the top 10 research topics for students in college or senior high school, always remember that the topic reflects an aspect of a subject. 

Factors to Choose Good Research Project Topics 

The key to finding the top 10 research topics may leave you confused but don’t worry. The table below portrays the characteristics of interesting research paper topics that you must keep in mind: 

How to Choose a Good Research Paper Topics?

While we will give you some ideas about the top 10 research topics for students, you still need to pick one. However, getting closer to this sole topic may feel soul-crushing! Don’t worry; these tips will help you select the best research topics for students. 

1. Personal Interest

The top 10 research topics for students usually stem from what motivates them. If you are interested in a specific field, you can go forward with the topic as long as it is relevant to your field. However, this does not mean you can overlook potential biases - being too close to the subject might even lead you nowhere. 

2. Check the Guidelines

When looking for the top 10 research topics for students, it’s imperative to adhere to guidelines laid out by your school. Sometimes, they approve good topics for research papers only if they are related to the public interest or environment. Ask your professor/mentor whether you need to follow certain guidelines while finding the best research topics for students. 

3. Availability of Resources  

Your research project might never see the daylight if you do not have enough resources available. Make sure the resources are within your limits! In case your research has funding, always check how you will be able to use it. Finances, access to participants, and timings are key factors in finalising among the top 10 research topics for students. 

Top 10 Research Topics for Students in College and Senior High School

Here, we will delve into the top 10 research topics for students. Whether you are in a college or senior high school, these topics will show you light at the end of the tunnel. You might find inspiration from these topics and may even come up with original research topics and research questions. So, let’s unveil the best research topic ideas for students! 

1. Psychology Research Paper Topics 

Psychology papers offer an exciting opportunity to explore and understand the human psyche. Emerging technologies and their impact on mental health is one of the best research topics for students, yet there are more you can explore. Below, are some of the best research topics for students: 

1. The impact of social media on mental health among adolescents and young adults.

2. The potential benefits and risks of virtual reality therapy for mental health conditions. 

3. The ethical considerations of using AI in psychological treatment. 

4. The influence of mindfulness practices on cognitive performance and well-being.

5. The link between sleep quality and cognitive decline in ageing populations.

2. Business and Economics Research Topics 

From sustainable business practices to global trade dynamics, the best research topics for students regarding business and economics revolve around many areas. While you may initially find it challenging how to conduct research , you can draw inspiration from these topics for research paper:

1. The impact of AI on various aspects of business, such as marketing and financial analysis.

2. The ethical considerations and challenges associated with the use of big data and analytics in business practices.

3. The potential of blockchain technology to revolutionise supply chain management and improve data privacy.

4. The effectiveness of policy interventions to promote sustainable economic growth & development.

5. Exploring the factors that contribute to the success of startups and new ventures in the digital age.

3. Social Sciences Research Topics 

Social sciences deal with the study of human behaviour and explore socioeconomic inequalities, political ideologies, urban development, and more. If you are looking for good ideas for a research paper regarding social sciences, here are some: 

1. The effectiveness of different social policy interventions aimed at addressing global issues. 

2. The potential of blockchain technology to improve transparency and accountability in social structures.

3. The social and ethical implications of artificial intelligence (AI) in various aspects of life. 

4. The psychological and social impacts of climate change on individuals and communities. 

5. The increasing focus on interdisciplinary research that combines social science with data science.

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4. Language and Linguistics Research Topics 

From computational linguistics to semantics to language preservation, the field of language  leads to some really good topics for research papers. While going through our list of top 10 research topics for students, you can already grasp that there are a few things to keep in mind when writing a college paper ! So, here are the best research topic ideas for students regarding language studies: 

1. The influence of social media and digital communication on language use and evolution.   

2. The impact of language learning apps and online platforms on pedagogy. 

3. The role of language in perpetuating social inequalities.

4. The link between language and mental health in the context of cultural displacement.

5. The potential of multilingualism to enhance cognitive abilities. 

5. Health and Medicine Research Topics

Finding the best research topics for students is daunting when it comes to a dynamic field like health and medicine. After going through this compilation of the top 10 research topics for students, you can understand how to come up with the right one. Here, based on the emerging areas of interest, we share some of the potentially impactful and the best research ideas for students: 

1. The integration of AI in medical diagnosis and treatment. 

2. Investigating the ethical considerations of using AI in the healthcare sector. 

3. The developing field of preventive health measures and promoting healthy lifestyles.

4. The link between social determinants of health and mental well-being. 

5. Improving access to healthcare and promoting health equity in minority communities.

6. Renewable Energy & Clean Technologies Research Topics

Initially, you might find it impossible to understand how to write a research paper for college , but these top 10 research topics for students will have you covered. Especially when your focus is on clean energy sources and the emission of greenhouse gases, there is a lot to cover nowadays. Here are some of the best research topics for students: 

1. The potential of next-generation solar cell technologies. 

2. The social and environmental aspects of renewable energy deployment.

3. Discovering the potential of decentralised energy systems.

4. The potential of hydrogen energy, including production, storage, and utilisation.

5. The impact of climate change on renewable energy resources.

7. Technology and Innovation Research Topics 

The sector for technology is ever-evolving, with innovations taking place every other. With the emergence of IoT, artificial intelligence, and ML, the world of technology is your oyster. Here are the best research topics for students: 

1. The societal implications of AI in healthcare, finance, and autonomous vehicles. 

2. The potential of blockchain technology to revolutionise cybersecurity and voting systems.

3. Innovative solutions to combat climate change, including renewable energy technologies and sustainable infrastructure. 

4. The role of technology in disaster preparedness and risk management. 

5. The use of technology to bridge the digital divide and ensure equitable access to information. 

8. Arts and Design Research Topics 

Whether your niche lies in art therapy, cultural studies in arts, or architecture innovation, there are interesting research paper topics. While exploring the top 10 research topics for students, constructing research may seem difficult – going through the research design - elements and characteristics can solve your problems. So, here are the best research topics for students in college: 

1. The impact of AI on artistic creation. 

2. The use of virtual reality and augmented reality in storytelling. 

3. The role of art in addressing social and environmental challenges. 

4.  The use of art as a tool for social commentary and activism. 

5. The evolving nature of art museums and galleries in the digital age.

9. Argumentative Research Topics 

Building a specific argument and exploring topics can bring you some unique topics for research paper. Through these top 10 research topics for students, you can evaluate human interest on a global scale and beyond. Let’s have a look at these best research topics for students: 

1. Is universal basic income a viable solution to poverty?

2. Is nuclear power a solution to the global energy crisis?

3. Does increased global cooperation offer a solution to climate change?

4. The impact of automation and AI on the future of work and employment.

5. The ethical implications of gene editing and other emerging biotechnologies.

10. Human Rights Research Paper Topics  

Our list of top 10 research topics remains incomplete without human rights. This field is evolving and has become a growing interest for everyone around the world. If you want to probe questions about gender equality or privacy rights, here are a few of the best research topics for students: 

1. The role of human rights defenders and activists in promoting social change. 

2. The human rights of marginalised groups, such as LGBTQ+ individuals and people with disabilities.

3. The impact of AI on human rights, including issues of bias and discrimination.

4. Examining the ethical implications of facial recognition technology. 

5. Exploring the human rights implications of environmental pollution and toxic waste disposal. 

Now that you have an idea about some of the top 10 research topics for students, we hope you come up with an original one. Remember, successful research always starts with the right question. Take time, dig deep into the relevant theories, and find thought-provoking topics for research papers. Meanwhile, don’t overlook the power of how to write a research paper appendix and how to create the right structure for the paper. So, happy researching! 

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Data, Privacy Laws and Firm Production: Evidence from the GDPR

By regulating how firms collect, store, and use data, privacy laws may change the role of data in production and alter firm demand for information technology inputs. We study how firms respond to privacy laws in the context of the EU’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) by using seven years of data from a large global cloud-computing provider. Our difference-in-difference estimates indicate that, in response to the GDPR, EU firms decreased data storage by 26% and data processing by 15% relative to comparable US firms, becoming less “data-intensive.” To estimate the costs of the GDPR for firms, we propose and estimate a production function where data and computation serve as inputs to the production of “information." We find that data and computation are strong complements in production and that firm responses are consistent with the GDPR, representing a 20% increase in the cost of data on average. Variation in the firm-level effects of the GDPR and industry-level exposure to data, however, drives significant heterogeneity in our estimates of the impact of the GDPR on production costs.

We thank Guy Aridor, James Brand, Alessandro Bonatti, Peter Cihon, Jean Pierre Dubé, Joe Doyle, Ben Edelman, Liran Einav, Sara Ellison, Maryam Farboodi, Samuel Goldberg, Yizhou Jin, Garrett Johnson, Gaston Illanes, Markus Mobius, Devesh Raval, Dominik Rehse, Tobias Salz, Bryan Stuart, Taheya Tarannum, Joel Waldfogel, and Mike Whinston for helpful comments, and Abbie Natkin, Taegan Mullane, Doris Pan, Ryan Perry, Bea Rivera for excellent research assistance. We are also grateful to Han Choi for copyediting assistance. We gratefully acknowledge the support of the National Institute on Aging, Grant Number T32- AG000186 (Li) and the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship under Grant No 214106 (Li). The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, the Federal Reserve System, or the National Bureau of Economic Research.

Mert Demirer is a former paid postdoctoral researcher at Microsoft (a firm active in the cloud market, which this paper studies).

Diego Jiménez Hernández is a former paid postdoctoral researcher at Microsoft.

Dean Li is a former intern at Microsoft.

Sida Peng is a paid employee and minority equity holder at Microsoft.

MARC RIS BibTeΧ

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Reproductive rights in America

Research at the heart of a federal case against the abortion pill has been retracted.

Selena Simmons-Duffin

Selena Simmons-Duffin

research paper about quiz

The Supreme Court will hear the case against the abortion pill mifepristone on March 26. It's part of a two-drug regimen with misoprostol for abortions in the first 10 weeks of pregnancy. Anna Moneymaker/Getty Images hide caption

The Supreme Court will hear the case against the abortion pill mifepristone on March 26. It's part of a two-drug regimen with misoprostol for abortions in the first 10 weeks of pregnancy.

A scientific paper that raised concerns about the safety of the abortion pill mifepristone was retracted by its publisher this week. The study was cited three times by a federal judge who ruled against mifepristone last spring. That case, which could limit access to mifepristone throughout the country, will soon be heard in the Supreme Court.

The now retracted study used Medicaid claims data to track E.R. visits by patients in the month after having an abortion. The study found a much higher rate of complications than similar studies that have examined abortion safety.

Sage, the publisher of the journal, retracted the study on Monday along with two other papers, explaining in a statement that "expert reviewers found that the studies demonstrate a lack of scientific rigor that invalidates or renders unreliable the authors' conclusions."

It also noted that most of the authors on the paper worked for the Charlotte Lozier Institute, the research arm of anti-abortion lobbying group Susan B. Anthony Pro-Life America, and that one of the original peer reviewers had also worked for the Lozier Institute.

The Sage journal, Health Services Research and Managerial Epidemiology , published all three research articles, which are still available online along with the retraction notice. In an email to NPR, a spokesperson for Sage wrote that the process leading to the retractions "was thorough, fair, and careful."

The lead author on the paper, James Studnicki, fiercely defends his work. "Sage is targeting us because we have been successful for a long period of time," he says on a video posted online this week . He asserts that the retraction has "nothing to do with real science and has everything to do with a political assassination of science."

He says that because the study's findings have been cited in legal cases like the one challenging the abortion pill, "we have become visible – people are quoting us. And for that reason, we are dangerous, and for that reason, they want to cancel our work," Studnicki says in the video.

In an email to NPR, a spokesperson for the Charlotte Lozier Institute said that they "will be taking appropriate legal action."

Role in abortion pill legal case

Anti-abortion rights groups, including a group of doctors, sued the federal Food and Drug Administration in 2022 over the approval of mifepristone, which is part of a two-drug regimen used in most medication abortions. The pill has been on the market for over 20 years, and is used in more than half abortions nationally. The FDA stands by its research that finds adverse events from mifepristone are extremely rare.

Judge Matthew Kacsmaryk, the district court judge who initially ruled on the case, pointed to the now-retracted study to support the idea that the anti-abortion rights physicians suing the FDA had the right to do so. "The associations' members have standing because they allege adverse events from chemical abortion drugs can overwhelm the medical system and place 'enormous pressure and stress' on doctors during emergencies and complications," he wrote in his decision, citing Studnicki. He ruled that mifepristone should be pulled from the market nationwide, although his decision never took effect.

research paper about quiz

Matthew Kacsmaryk at his confirmation hearing for the federal bench in 2017. AP hide caption

Matthew Kacsmaryk at his confirmation hearing for the federal bench in 2017.

Kacsmaryk is a Trump appointee who was a vocal abortion opponent before becoming a federal judge.

"I don't think he would view the retraction as delegitimizing the research," says Mary Ziegler , a law professor and expert on the legal history of abortion at U.C. Davis. "There's been so much polarization about what the reality of abortion is on the right that I'm not sure how much a retraction would affect his reasoning."

Ziegler also doubts the retractions will alter much in the Supreme Court case, given its conservative majority. "We've already seen, when it comes to abortion, that the court has a propensity to look at the views of experts that support the results it wants," she says. The decision that overturned Roe v. Wade is an example, she says. "The majority [opinion] relied pretty much exclusively on scholars with some ties to pro-life activism and didn't really cite anybody else even or really even acknowledge that there was a majority scholarly position or even that there was meaningful disagreement on the subject."

In the mifepristone case, "there's a lot of supposition and speculation" in the argument about who has standing to sue, she explains. "There's a probability that people will take mifepristone and then there's a probability that they'll get complications and then there's a probability that they'll get treatment in the E.R. and then there's a probability that they'll encounter physicians with certain objections to mifepristone. So the question is, if this [retraction] knocks out one leg of the stool, does that somehow affect how the court is going to view standing? I imagine not."

It's impossible to know who will win the Supreme Court case, but Ziegler thinks that this retraction probably won't sway the outcome either way. "If the court is skeptical of standing because of all these aforementioned weaknesses, this is just more fuel to that fire," she says. "It's not as if this were an airtight case for standing and this was a potentially game-changing development."

Oral arguments for the case, Alliance for Hippocratic Medicine v. FDA , are scheduled for March 26 at the Supreme Court. A decision is expected by summer. Mifepristone remains available while the legal process continues.

  • Abortion policy
  • abortion pill
  • judge matthew kacsmaryk
  • mifepristone
  • retractions
  • Abortion rights
  • Supreme Court

This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 22.2.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

Identifying the Risk Factors of Allergic Rhinitis Based on Zhihu Comment Data Using a Topic-Enhanced Word-Embedding Model: Mixed Method Study and Cluster Analysis

Authors of this article:

Author Orcid Image

Original Paper

  • Dongxiao Gu 1 , PhD   ; 
  • Qin Wang 1 , MD   ; 
  • Yidong Chai 1 , PhD   ; 
  • Xuejie Yang 1 , PhD   ; 
  • Wang Zhao 1 , PhD   ; 
  • Min Li 1 , MD   ; 
  • Oleg Zolotarev 2 , PhD   ; 
  • Zhengfei Xu 1 , MD   ; 
  • Gongrang Zhang 1 , PhD  

1 School of Management, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China

2 Russian New University, Moscow, Russian Federation

Corresponding Author:

Dongxiao Gu, PhD

School of Management, Hefei University of Technology

193 Tunxi Road

Hefei, 230009

Phone: 86 13866167367

Email: [email protected]

Background: Allergic rhinitis (AR) is a chronic disease, and several risk factors predispose individuals to the condition in their daily lives, including exposure to allergens and inhalation irritants. Analyzing the potential risk factors that can trigger AR can provide reference material for individuals to use to reduce its occurrence in their daily lives. Nowadays, social media is a part of daily life, with an increasing number of people using at least 1 platform regularly. Social media enables users to share experiences among large groups of people who share the same interests and experience the same afflictions. Notably, these channels promote the ability to share health information.

Objective: This study aims to construct an intelligent method (TopicS-ClusterREV) for identifying the risk factors of AR based on these social media comments. The main questions were as follows: How many comments contained AR risk factor information? How many categories can these risk factors be summarized into? How do these risk factors trigger AR?

Methods: This study crawled all the data from May 2012 to May 2022 under the topic of allergic rhinitis on Zhihu, obtaining a total of 9628 posts and 33,747 comments. We improved the Skip-gram model to train topic-enhanced word vector representations (TopicS) and then vectorized annotated text items for training the risk factor classifier. Furthermore, cluster analysis enabled a closer look into the opinions expressed in the category, namely gaining insight into how risk factors trigger AR.

Results: Our classifier identified more comments containing risk factors than the other classification models, with an accuracy rate of 96.1% and a recall rate of 96.3%. In general, we clustered texts containing risk factors into 28 categories, with season, region, and mites being the most common risk factors. We gained insight into the risk factors expressed in each category; for example, seasonal changes and increased temperature differences between day and night can disrupt the body’s immune system and lead to the development of allergies.

Conclusions: Our approach can handle the amount of data and extract risk factors effectively. Moreover, the summary of risk factors can serve as a reference for individuals to reduce AR in their daily lives. The experimental data also provide a potential pathway that triggers AR. This finding can guide the development of management plans and interventions for AR.

Introduction

Over the past few decades, the prevalence of chronic diseases has increased significantly, becoming a global public health concern. The World Health Organization has listed allergic diseases as one of the disease types that require priority research and prevention in the 21st century [ 1 ]. As a common chronic disease, allergic rhinitis (AR) is a multifactorial disease that is induced by environmental conditions or certain genes [ 2 ]. AR not only has a significant impact on individuals’ sleep, social life, and work attendance but also triggers comorbidities such as conjunctivitis, atopic dermatitis, and asthma [ 3 ]. Large-scale flow survey data showed that AR currently affects several people in China alone [ 4 ] and with an estimated prevalence between 15% and 20% worldwide [ 5 ]. The direct and indirect costs associated with the management of AR are also a significant burden on society. For instance, the total cost of AR in Sweden, with a population of 9.5 million, was estimated at €1.3 (US $1.41) billion annually [ 6 ]. These unexpectedly high costs could be related to the high prevalence of disease, in combination with the previously often underestimated indirect costs that arise from reduced work efficiency and absenteeism and the potential costs associated with treating AR comorbidities [ 6 ].

Currently, there is no cure for AR, and individuals need to avoid the disease risk factors such as exposure to allergens and inhalation irritants [ 7 ] during the long self-management process. Therefore, identifying AR risk factors can provide a reference for patients to help reduce the condition in their daily lives [ 8 ].

A plethora of studies have been proposed to identify AR risk factors. These studies recruited participants with symptoms of AR and control participants without AR symptoms from a specific age group or a particular geographical area. These studies collected demographic information, lifestyle habits, family history, comorbidities, and residential areas through questionnaires. Subsequently, they used correlation methods to explore the relationship between these data and AR, aiming to identify the risk factors for AR within the specified age group or geographical area [ 9 ]. However, these studies have 2 limitations. First, these studies specifically target certain age groups or geographical areas, and questionnaires can only gather data on specific pieces of information. Owing to the constraints of questionnaire surveys, it is challenging to identify potential risk factors that may be present in individuals’ daily lives. As a result, the risk factors identified through survey-based studies have a limited scope and are incomplete. As such, they provide limited insights for a broader patient population. Second, the survey-based approach demands a commitment to long-term investigation and a substantial effort to collect representative responses [ 10 ]. In contrast, collecting information from social media platforms can cover large geographical areas at a comparatively low cost [ 10 ]. Social media platforms allow users to share experiences and opinions on various topics [ 11 , 12 ], including personal health issues [ 13 ]. Over time, highly unstructured and implicit knowledge has been generated in communities where users frequently participate [ 14 , 15 ], which can provide daily health records that are difficult to obtain from traditional questionnaire surveys. Therefore, social media can become a potential source of information for identifying risk factors for diseases such as AR [ 16 ].

Text-mining techniques are an effective tool for using voluminous social media data [ 17 ]. Some studies have combined social media data analysis to obtain knowledge about disease risk factors [ 18 , 19 ]. However, the abovementioned studies on disease risk factors used only shallow text features such as the number of social media text items and word cooccurrences, which are not conducive to identifying disease risk factors in the context of colloquial and diverse user expressions [ 20 ]. In this study, we designed a text-processing framework to automatically identify risk factors from social media data [ 21 ]. We used social media comments to construct a natural language processing–based AR risk factor identification method, aiming to tackle the problems of omission and low accuracy in traditional disease-related information identification methods that rely solely on shallow text features such as word frequency.

To be more specific, we developed an AR risk factor identification method that integrates pretrained word embeddings with text convolutional neural networks (CNNs). The Word2vec algorithm has proven to be superior in text vector representation [ 20 ]. This is a prediction-based approach that predicts the neighboring words that are most likely to appear within a window size around a center word in a corpus, resulting in high-dimensional vector representations that capture semantic aggregation. As social media users may mention related topics, such as symptoms and treatments, when describing risk factors in their comments, we used a local context window to achieve better semantic aggregation of AR risk factors, a method that has been demonstrated to be effective for such aggregation. In addition, using the Skip-gram model to train word pairs enables the incorporation of word thematic information, thus improving attention to risk factor phrases. The convolutional network can convolve the text in the word vector dimension and extract critical information through the max-pooling layer operation. In addition, this study used a clustering method with review mechanisms to concentrate on a large amount of text that contains risk factors within the observable range, thereby ensuring the usefulness of the content obtained through text mining.

Our main contributions were as follows:

  • First, this study proposed a framework (TopicS-ClusterREV) based on natural language processing for identifying the risk factors of AR. We used pretrained word embeddings and text convolutional networks to process social media text. Our model can identify more risk factors from social media comments with high accuracy and recall. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to use natural language processing techniques to identify risk factors for AR in social media comments.
  • Second, this study proposes a topic-enhanced word-embedding model. TopicS enhances the thematic information of words by adding a task that predicts the theme to which the center word belongs. This generates high-dimensional word vector representations with semantic aggregation and theme enhancement. We trained 2 types of word vectors using both the Skip-gram and TopicS models and separately input them into each risk factor classifier. The results showed that TopicS outperformed the baseline on the text classification task, demonstrating the effectiveness of our topic-enhanced word-embedding model.
  • Finally, we introduced automatic and manual review mechanisms to improve the single-pass algorithm, which allowed us to effectively identify and focus on a large amount of text that contains risk factors within the observable range. We ultimately identified 28 categories of risk factors including the common risk factors that lead to most individuals developing symptoms and previously overlooked risk factors that were not within the scope of previous research.

Identification of AR Risk Factors Through Surveys

AR has become a major global issue with a substantial increase in its prevalence in recent years. In Europe, the prevalence of AR among Danish adults progressively increased from 19% to 32% over the past 3 decades [ 22 ]. Understanding the risk factors, such as genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors, helps in the management of AR, thus motivating many studies to focus on identifying potential risk factors. These studies are summarized in Table 1 . From Table 1 , we observed that the previous studies were based on survey methods, including cross-sectional surveys, cohort studies, and case-control studies.

a We searched for the literature related to AR risk factors and presented 9 papers from the past decade to showcase the methods and the identified risk factors.

These studies typically recruited participants with symptoms of AR and control participants without AR symptoms from a specific age group or a particular geographical area, collected demographic information through questionnaires, and then conducted correlation analysis, such as logistic regression, to explore the relationship between those metadata and AR [ 32 ]. For instance, Gao et al [ 9 ] conducted a cross-sectional survey to investigate the prevalence and risk factors of adult self-reported AR in the plain lands and hilly areas of Shenmu City in China and analyzed the differences between regions. The content of the web-based questionnaire included demographic factors, smoking status, the comorbidities of other allergic disorders, family history of allergies, and place of residence. The unconditional logistic regression analysis was used to screen for factors influencing AR. Finally, they found that the prevalence of AR existed in regional differences. Genetic and environmental factors were the important risk factors associated with AR. However, these studies have 2 limitations. First, these studies specifically targeted certain age groups or geographical areas, and questionnaires can only gather data on specific pieces of information. Owing to the constraints of questionnaire surveys, it is challenging to identify potential risk factors that may be present in individuals’ daily lives. As a result, the risk factors identified through survey-based studies have limited scope and are incomplete and they may provide limited insights for a broader patient population. Second, the survey-based approach demands a commitment to long-term investigation and a massive effort to collect representative responses [ 10 ].

Identification of Disease Risk Factors From Social Media Through Text Mining

Social media sites provide a convenient way for users to continuously update their day-to-day activities, which allows large groups of people to create and share information, opinions, and experiences about health conditions through web-based discussion [ 11 ]. Hence, social media can be considered a new data source to assess population health. As shown in Table 2 , some studies have combined text-mining techniques to classify and summarize voluminous social media data to obtain knowledge about chronic disease risk factors. Zhang and Ram [ 33 ] extracted behavioral features from Twitter posts of asthma users using keywords from an existing knowledge base. Griffis et al [ 34 ] collected 25,000 tweets containing and not containing diabetes, identified 5000 common words, used logistic regression to determine which common words were high-frequency expressions of diabetes, and finally grouped these high-frequency words using latent Dirichlet allocation to obtain the risk factors for diabetes. Schäfer et al [ 35 ] used syntactic analysis to identify portions of risk factors occurring before or after causal terms, grouped these portions using latent Dirichlet allocation, and obtained the risk factors for gastric discomfort. Pradeepa et al [ 19 ] performed clustering on stroke-related tweets using the Probability Neural Network, used the Apriori algorithm to identify frequent word sets related to risk, and thus identified risk factors for stroke [ 19 ]. In addition to the aforementioned approaches that use shallow text features such as keywords, frequent word sets, high-frequency words, and syntactic features for disease risk factor identification, other studies [ 36 - 38 ] trained risk factor classifiers using machine learning methods such as Naive Bayes, Maximum Entropy Model, and Naive Bayes Classifier–Term Frequency Inverse Document Frequency. These classifiers predict the presence of risk factors in text based on discrete vector representations such as bag-of-words and n-gram.

a We searched for studies related to identifying disease risk factors based on social media data. We found 7 papers from the past decade, highlighting the social media platforms, data, methods, features, diseases, and risk factors involved in research.

b LDA: latent Dirichlet allocation.

c MLP: multilayer perceptron.

The current methods for identifying disease risk factors on social media fall into 2 categories: shallow text feature methods and discrete word vector representations. Shallow text feature techniques often fail to capture important risk factors resulting in low accuracy, whereas discrete word vector approaches struggle to keep up with the dynamic vocabulary of social media text, missing new words, and trending expressions, thus inadequately representing the information conveyed.

Word Embedding and Text Classification Based on Deep Learning

Natural language processing technology promotes text analysis based on social media comments [ 39 ]; this technology can learn the deeper semantic features of the comment text and the features that are consistent with the current context, according to different training corpus, to input a better text vector representation for downstream classification tasks. Some researchers have used large-scale pretrained language models [ 40 ], global matrix decomposition [ 41 ], and local context windows [ 42 ] for text vector representation. Local context windows are more suitable for semantically aggregating AR risk factors [ 43 ]. Skip-gram and Continuous Bag-of-Words Model (CBOW) are prediction-based methods that learn the semantic representation of a center word by predicting the most likely neighboring words within a window size in a corpus. When users narrate risk factors in their comments, they may also mention symptoms, treatments, and other topics. These global contexts may dilute the key features of the risk factors expression. CBOW averages the context words to predict the target word and tends to predict high-frequency words in the corpus. In contrast, Skip-gram gives each word a chance to be a center word, making it better at predicting rare words compared with CBOW [ 44 ]. Therefore, in situations where social media users express a wide variety of ideas, the Skip-gram model can yield satisfactory outcomes. Moreover, the Skip-gram approach uses word pair training, which facilitates the incorporation of topic information into words [ 45 ], resulting in the generation of high-dimensional word vectors that feature semantic aggregation and topic enhancement. Therefore, we selected Skip-gram as the word-embedding model for our study.

Text classification has evolved to deep learning models, mainly including CNN-based models [ 46 ], recurrent neural network (RNN)–based models [ 47 ], and transformer models [ 48 ]. For the CNN algorithm, convolutional networks can convolve text on the word vector dimensions and extract key information through pooling layer operations. Consequently, this algorithm is capable of using essential data for classification tasks. Therefore, we used TextCNN for classifier training and evaluated the performance of RNN and transformer models on this task.

The framework used in this study consisted of 3 parts as shown in Figure 1 . The first part was data collection and processing, aimed at obtaining a clean data set. The second part was risk factor identification, which included the proposed TopicS method and training of a risk factor classifier. The implementation steps were as follows: (1) semiautomatically constructing a risk factor topic dictionary, (2) generating high-dimensional word vectors enhanced by TopicS-generated topics, and (3) vectorizing annotated text and training a risk factor classifier. The third part is text clustering and keyword extraction, which uses the ClusterREV method to cluster the identified risk factors and extract keywords from every category.

research paper about quiz

Zhihu is a Chinese social media platform where people discuss topics in an web-based forum format. In May 2022, the Zhihu subcommunity allergic rhinitis had 1.04 million discussions. The posts on this social media platform allow other users to comment [ 49 ], and people can explain their situations to provide support or seek help effectively. Therefore, these comments provide a rich source of data for investigating the risk factors reported by different users [ 50 ]. In this study, we trained domain-specific word representations based on experimental data. A relatively domain-specific input corpus [ 51 ] is better at extracting meaningful semantic relations than a generic pretrained language model [ 52 ]. We crawled all the data from May 2012 to May 2022 under the topic allergic rhinitis on Zhihu, obtaining a total of 9628 posts and 33,747 comments, including the post ID, comment ID, and post and comment content.

In this study, we preprocessed the data through regularization, stop word removal, and word separation. First, we removed special symbols, such as URLs and emoticons, in the comments through regularization and stop word removal to reduce the interference of noise with the text analysis task. Then, we compiled a dictionary of 169 specialized terms, including types of AR, medications, and comorbidities, to reduce the probability of incorrect word segmentation. After word separation, we obtained a lexicon of 68,863 words and ranked the words according to the number of occurrences. We found that the top 10,000 words accounted for 94.83% of the total words, suggesting that many words recurred and a relatively simple word vector could effectively train the model [ 53 ]. This further confirms the efficacy of our decision to use Skip-gram as the foundational model.

We observed ultrashort comment noise in the comments (eg, “Thank you!”). It is important to note that these ultrashort comments do not include any personal medical information. The ultrashort comments were filtered, resulting in 33,039 valid comments. This operation can effectively minimize the impact of noise on downstream text classification tasks. Table S1 in Multimedia Appendix 1 presents the examples of valid comments.

The data must be labeled before supervised learning and then trained end to end. If a comment directly mentions an allergen or indicates a condition that leads to the appearance or worsening of symptoms, the comment will be labeled as 1, indicating the presence of risk factors, as shown in Figure 2 .

research paper about quiz

We randomly chose 2030 comments from the 33,039 comments, and 3 researchers labeled each comment as containing or not containing risk factors. To ensure high interannotator consistency, all 3 researchers annotated all 2030 comments. In cases with uncertainty in labeling, the 3 researchers discussed and arrived at a final label. After annotating and eliminating comments with religiously controversial content, 2000 labeled comments remained, consisting of 996 comments containing risk factors and 1004 comments not containing risk factors. The data set was divided into a 90% training set and a 10% test set. The 90% training set was further divided into 10 subsets, with 9 subsets used for training and the remaining subset used for validation, performing 10-fold cross-validation.

Topic Dictionary Construction

We used a combination of manual labeling and similarity calculation to identify keywords related to risk factors. Subsequently, we constructed a table of topic words using a semiautomated approach. The process of constructing the dictionary is depicted in Textbox 1 and is as follows: (1) label 400 randomly selected comments as described in the Annotation section, thereby obtaining 198 comments with risk factors; (2) extract risk factor phrases from annotated comments; (3) obtain risk factors topic word list; (4) remove duplicate word list, and the words in the current topic are used as seed words, word_set ; (5) use Skip-gram to find the top similar words to expand the topic words; (6) repeat steps 3 through 5 to expand the topic word; and (7) finally, obtain the topic words for the risk factor. A large weight was assigned to the risk factor theme words. Table S2 in Multimedia Appendix 1 shows examples of the risk factor topic dictionary.

Input: annotated comments

Output: topic dictionary

1. d i = Select Annotated data;

2. p i = Extract from d i

for w in p i :

list_i.append(w)

4. word_set=set(list)

5. for w in set: word_i.update(Skip-gram.mostsimilar(topn=n))

6. Loop step3, step4, step5

Ethical Considerations

As the use of text data from social media involves user privacy, this study adopted the following steps for deidentification: (1) We removed user account information and retained only anonymous comment information. (2) We used regular expressions to match and delete URLs and email addresses in the comments. (3) During the annotation process, annotators received only text that did not involve personal information. To evaluate the quality of deidentification, we randomly selected 500 text items for manual inspection and did not find any instances containing personal identity information. Our data are sourced from public discussions on Zhihu, a social media platform that can be accessed without registration. We followed strict ethical research protocols similar to the guidelines by Eysenbach and Till [ 54 ]. In addition, to protect the anonymity of participants, we have implemented measures including the removal of user information and avoiding verbatim quotations to prevent identification through search engines, protecting the privacy and security of personal data. It should be mentioned that our study was focused on the post level; we do not anticipate any negative ethical impact from our analysis.

Topic-Enhanced Word Embedding

TopicS performed 2 tasks during training, as shown in Figure 3 . The first task was to predict the neighboring words within the window of the central word. The second task was to predict the topic of the central word; the topic dictionary used for this purpose is described in the Topic Dictionary Construction section.

research paper about quiz

The specific formula calculations for the loss function design, parameter updates, and error backpropagation of TopicS are explained subsequently.

First, we defined the loss function. For each word in the corpus, we used it as the central word for a sliding operation with a window size of c ; let S be the training sequence ( w 1 ,w 2 ,...,w T ), whereas w i denotes the i th word in the sequence. The subscript T represents the total number of unique words in the corpus. In addition to predicting the contextual word of the central word, we must also predict the topic score of the central word. Therefore, the loss function comprised 2 parts: L cont and L topic , and the overall loss was denoted by L s . Our training objective was to minimize the loss function:

research paper about quiz

Finally, we can update the word representation.

Text Classification

In this study, we chose TextCNN as the classification model. In the risk factor identification task, some key semantic information is more important, and TextCNN can efficiently use the key information for classification with minimal cost consumption. We represented the manually annotated text as a vector matrix using high-dimensional word vector representations trained by the TopicS model, which aggregates local contextual and topic information and uses it as input for the TextCNN model. Then, the TextCNN algorithm leverages convolutional kernels of different sizes to extract multiple n-gram text features and uses convolutional operations in a fixed window to combine word representations to capture local information. Our input word vector combined the topic information of words, and the most important features in the convolution operation can be extracted using the maximum pooling operation as shown in Figure 4 .

research paper about quiz

Clustering With a Review Mechanism

The clustering task is to group similar risk factors. In this study, a large amount of text containing risk factors was clustered into a manually observable number of categories, making it easier to comprehend their content. This study enhances the single-pass algorithm and integrates it with a manual review to cluster the risk factors identified in the text classification, ensuring the validity of the clustering results. The main concept of single-pass clustering [ 55 ] is to match informational text items based on their similarity values without the need to determine the number of clusters in advance. This makes it suitable for clustering tasks with an unknown number of clusters. However, traditional single-pass clustering uses only one-loop traversal, which may result in previously entered text items completing the traversal earlier. This can cause their similarity to the previous topics to be slightly lower than the threshold and lead to them being recreated as new categories, ultimately affecting the clustering effect.

As shown in Figure 5 , we improved the single-pass algorithm by retraversing the categories that were clustered separately after all the text items had been traversed to handle any missed text. After the automated clustering was completed, we conducted a manual review to ensure the reliability of the clustering.

research paper about quiz

Moreover, this study uses a keyword cloud visualization of category content to quickly understand the themes and characteristics of each cluster and compare the differences between different clusters. TextRank [ 56 ] was selected to extract category keywords, which considers only the voting scores of words in a single document; common words that frequently appear in a single document easily obtain high scores [ 57 ]. We treated each category as a single document for keyword extraction. As risk factors appear more frequently in categories, TextRank can effectively extract risk factors and surrounding words, preserving category content information as much as possible and reflecting the true content of the risk factors.

In this section, we present the performance of the classifier and the findings based on the categorization of all the comments in the clean data set using the classifier. Our approach involved visualizing the clustering results of the risk factors to comprehend the primary elements of these factors. We also explored the pathogenic mechanisms associated with these risk factors.

Classifier Performance

We used standard text-mining evaluation metrics such as accuracy, precision, recall, and F 1 -score to evaluate the performance. Precision assesses how many risk factors the model identifies correctly, and recall measures how many risk factors the model can identify on its test set. As we aimed to identify as many AR risk factors as possible to provide comprehensive references for individuals, recall was more important than precision in our study.

We set 7-word embedding dimensions ranging from 100 to 400. Table 3 displays the classification results of the TextCNN classification model with the 7 dimensions of Skip-gram and TopicS word vectors. In addition, TextRNN and transformer models were evaluated with the 7-word embedding dimensions of TopicS or Skip-gram, as shown in Tables S3 and S4 in Multimedia Appendix 1 ; the classification models performed better when the word-embedding dimension was 100 or 150, as shown in Table 4 , which includes the results with best-performing dimensions. This study conducted word representation learning on a domain-specific input corpus, where low dimensionality was found to be sufficient to represent the features of the corpus [ 58 ]. Moreover, TopicS not only improved precision but also significantly increased recall for all 3 models, as shown in Table 4 .

a TopicS represents the topic-enhanced word-embedding model proposed in this paper.

b Italicization represents that the metrics of TopicS are better than Skip-gram for each metric.

a Embed_size represents the word-embedding size.

b Italicization represents that the metrics of TopicS are better than Skip-gram for each model.

Table 4 shows that TextCNN has the highest accuracy and recall rate among the 3 classification models. The highest accuracy achieved by our classification model was 0.9594, which used a 150-dimension word-embedding representation obtained from TopicS. In other words, TextCNN can detect more risk factors and minimize the loss of risk factors resulting from classification errors. The CNN model can extract key information similar to n-grams in sentences. The combination of TopicS and TextCNN can enhance topic information and achieve an aggregation effect. Our implementation process was the simplest and consumed the least resources. Our model examined 30,372 comments and identified 5221 comments containing risk factors.

Risk Factor Clustering Results

We clustered the text items obtained from the text classification into 28 categories and extracted keywords from each category to better understand the content. Table 5 shows the top 5 categories and their corresponding keywords. The complete list can be found in Table S5 in Multimedia Appendix 1 . We used category 1 as an example to explain the category formation process and demonstrate the validity of the qualitative results. As shown in Table 4 , we labeled category 1 as Season based on the analysis of keyword weights and relative comments. The comments related to this category focused on seasonally induced AR, with factors such as changes in the weather during seasonal transitions and colder temperatures during winter, which can exacerbate symptoms. We also counted the number of text items in each category and found that seasonal, regional, mites, and weather changes were common risk factors for most patients. In addition, patients’ unhealthy lifestyle habits were also important risk factors widely present in research investigations. Furthermore, most patients reported experiencing symptoms at specific times (eg, “morning”), but researchers have paid little attention to the timing of symptom occurrence (which we refer to as time points).

The Possible Pathway of Several Risk Factors Triggers AR

We referred to the relevant literature on the risk factors associated with AR to confirm whether the extracted risk factors were consistent with the general medical consensus. Our findings are novel compared with those in the literature [ 59 ]. Previous survey-based studies have explored only the correlation between risk factors and AR, whereas our experimental data provide insight into the potential pathogenesis of reported risk factors. The following section provides a theoretical discussion of potential pathways for several risk factors that trigger AR:

  • Season : (1) seasonal risk factors are manifested in pollen allergens. Tree allergens such as elm and cypress pollen are prevalent in early spring, followed by ash, pine, and birch pollen in late spring. In summer, grasses, artemisia, and flowering plants grow vigorously owing to increased rainfall, leading to increased pollen spread from these plants. In autumn, weeds account for the largest proportion of pollen allergens. (2) Different climatic conditions in different seasons contribute to the development of allergies. For example, in early spring, frequent cold and high-pressure air activity in East Asia causes intense atmospheric circulation, resulting in alternating hot and cold temperatures that impair the immune regulatory function of the human body, leading to increased allergy attacks. In autumn, changeable weather, large temperature differences, and sunlight and UV radiation can stimulate allergic reactions in people with weak lungs or those who are prone to AR. In addition, seasonal changes and increasing temperature differences between day and night can disrupt the human immune system.
  • Poor habits : major keywords for this topic were “smoking,” “staying up late,” and “resistance.” (1) Habits such as staying up late, lack of exercise, smoking, and alcohol abuse can weaken immunity and resistance. Gangl et al [ 60 ] found that smoking can reduce the integrity and barrier function of respiratory epithelial cells, thereby making smokers more susceptible to allergens. (2) An irregular diet can damage the spleen and stomach, which is also a key factor in the development of AR. (3) The frequent use of air conditioning in summer can cause nasal mucosa irritation owing to temperature fluctuations. Long-term exposure to adverse stimuli can cause dryness of the nasal cavity and weaken the resistance of the mucosal epithelium, which may lead to AR.
  • Allergens : we grouped clusters that included mites, plants, food, animals, and mold as allergens. (1) The findings of this study suggest that dust mites are the primary allergen, and exposure to a certain concentration of indoor dust mites can lead to AR. The ideal humidity level for dust mite growth is between 75% and 80%, and dust mites tend to thrive during spring and autumn and in warm and humid environments. Studies have shown that a large number of dust mites may be attached to uncleaned air conditioning filters, confirming that air conditioning is an important route of transmission for household dust mites [ 61 ]. (2) Allergenic pollen species are closely related to regions and seasons, and some regions now provide pollen concentration and allergy index broadcasts based on meteorological conditions, which is highly convenient for individuals experiencing allergy. (3) Food allergens such as milk, eggs, wheat, soybeans, and peanuts can also trigger AR. (4) Apart from dust mites, other perennial indoor allergens include animal dander, cockroach excrement, and molds.
  • Outdoor environment : this topic had “dust,” “air quality,” “trust,” and “allergen” as high scoring words. (1) Various substances present in the outdoor environment can trigger AR. Industrialization has increased the content of aromatic hydrocarbon particles, ethanol, and formaldehyde in diesel exhaust, which can damage the mucous membrane and serve as a strong stimulus for AR attacks. (2) Air pollution can affect the distribution of allergens such as mold and pollen. In hazy weather, allergens tend to stay in the air longer, increasing the chance and duration of contact with the human body and leading to AR. (3) High winds can raise dust, pollen, mites, bacteria, and other allergenic factors, increasing their concentration in the air and making it easier to trigger AR.
  • Time points : patients with AR are more likely to experience symptoms during 2 specific time points, morning and evening. Schenkel et al [ 62 ] assessed the severity of 4 nasal symptoms (sneezing, blockage, nasal runny nose, and nasal itch) at different times of the day, revealing that morning and evening symptoms were the most severe. This may be because of the circadian rhythm, pollen concentration, or personal behavior exacerbating the symptoms. In the evening, when the wind subsides, pollen settles closer to the ground and can be inhaled more easily. In addition, although humans rest at night in a horizontal position, nasal ventilation may be more difficult, leading to more severe symptoms. In the morning, low temperatures can cause congestion and swelling of the nasal mucosa because of the temperature difference between the environment and the body. This cluster had words such as “evening,” “get up early,” and “nose” as highly rated words.

This theoretical discussion regarding the potential pathway of risk factors that trigger AR can guide the development of detailed AR intervention measures. For example, patients with AR can pay attention to pollen concentration and temperature changes and adjust their outings and clothing accordingly based on the characteristics of the season; they can set the air conditioner to turn on or off based on their waking time to reduce the inhalation of cold air when waking up. Furthermore, they can adjust their sleeping position to reduce the frequency of nighttime symptoms.

Principal Findings

This study aimed to identify the risk factors for AR based on social media comments. To do so, a data set of comments related to AR was collected, processed, and analyzed. The data set covered a consecutive period from May 2012 to May 2022. Overall, this analysis provided new insights into three main questions: (1) How many comments contained AR risk factor information? (2) How many categories can these risk factors be summarized into? (3) How do these risk factors trigger AR?

In assessing the identification of AR risk factors, we found that TopicS enhanced both precision and recall. TextCNN outperformed other models, achieving an accuracy of 0.9594 with a 150-dimension TopicS embedding. Analyzing 30,372 comments, our model pinpointed 5221 comments with risk factors. Categorizing the text items led to 28 distinct categories, with seasonal factors, regional variations, mites, weather changes, and unhealthy lifestyle habits emerging as common risks.

Furthermore, our research into AR risk factors revealed how risk factors trigger AR and uncovered the frequently reported, but underresearched, risk factors by affected individuals. Seasonal changes, especially during spring and autumn, increase exposure to pollen allergens, with varying climatic conditions affecting the development of allergies. Poor habits, such as smoking, irregular sleep, and frequent use of air conditioning, compromise immunity and heighten AR susceptibility. Dust mites, influenced by humidity, stand out as a primary allergen, with food items and indoor factors, such as animal dander, also triggering AR. Industrial pollutants and outdoor environmental factors amplify AR risk. Notably, AR symptoms intensify during mornings and evenings, which is likely influenced by circadian rhythms and environmental factors.

Limitations and Future Work

This study has some limitations. Our study was based on the self-reported nature of social media data, and the lack of more detailed information from the study participants was a concern. Our statistics showed that seasonal factors, regional variations, mites, weather changes, and unhealthy lifestyle habits emerge as common risk factors, which is consistent with the findings of other studies based on surveys. Although social media may lack in-depth patient information, it provides an effective method of collecting breadth of data. Social media data can be gathered 24 hours a day and are an extremely efficient way to rapidly update new knowledge into the risk factor knowledge base. In the future, our framework can be expanded in 2 ways. First, the framework can track the development trends and changes in AR risk factors by leveraging real-time internet data sets. Second, the framework can be generalized and extended to detect patterns, trends, and risk factors for other chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes.

Conclusions

In this model improvement study, we proposed a topic-enhanced word-embedding model to improve the accuracy and recall of the text classification, namely to uncover less common or other types of risk factors based on social media data that have not been previously reported. The risk factors identified in this study can be a helpful reference for people with AR to reduce the development of the disease in their daily lives. This study establishes a knowledge base of potential risk factors for individuals who may not be aware of the factors that could trigger their symptoms. Patients can compare their lifestyle habits and medical history to identify their risk factors, which could help reduce the frequency of episodes and prevent the decline in their quality of life caused by blindly avoiding potential triggers. Our findings demonstrate the practicality and feasibility of using social media data for investigating disease knowledge. These findings may provide guidance for the development of management plans and interventions for AR.

Acknowledgments

The data set collection and analysis of this research were partially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grants 72131006, 72071063, and 72271082); Anhui Provincial Key Research and Development Plan Project (grant 2022i01020003); and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (grant JS2023ZSPY0063).

Data Availability

The data sets generated and analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Authors' Contributions

DG conceptualized and investigated the study. QW drafted the methodology, performed the software analysis, and prepared the original draft. YC reviewed and edited the draft. XY completed the investigation. WZ drafted the methodology and supervised the study. ML supervised the study. ZX conceptualized the study. GZ and ZO supervised the study.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

Examples of social media text, topic dictionary examples, word-embedding dimension parameters with TextRNN, word-embedding dimension parameters with transformer, and social media category distribution and visualization.

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Abbreviations

Edited by A Mavragani; submitted 19.04.23; peer-reviewed by X Liu, Y Cao; comments to author 12.10.23; revised version received 30.10.23; accepted 03.01.24; published 22.02.24.

©Dongxiao Gu, Qin Wang, Yidong Chai, Xuejie Yang, Wang Zhao, Min Li, Oleg Zolotarev, Zhengfei Xu, Gongrang Zhang. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 22.02.2024.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://www.jmir.org/, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.

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  7. Quiz & Worksheet

    question 1 of 3 What is the proper order of the steps in writing a research paper? Choose a topic, create a research question, find reliable sources and start the bibliography, take notes and...

  8. Writing Strong Research Questions

    All research questions should be: Focused on a single problem or issue Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints Specific enough to answer thoroughly Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis

  9. Quiz: Finding Examples and Evidence

    Quiz: Avoiding Fallacies. Identifying the Main Idea. How to Research and Organize Your Writing. Finding Examples and Evidence. Quiz: Finding Examples and Evidence. The Importance of Specific Details. Quiz: The Importance of Specific Details. The Writing Assignment. Getting Started with Your Research Paper.

  10. Formulating Your Research Question (RQ)

    1. Broad Topic Versus Narrow Question 1a. BROAD TOPIC "What forces affect race relations in America?" 1b. NARROWER QUESTION "How do corporate hiring practices affect race relations in Nashville?" 1c. Note:

  11. Writing Strong Research Questions

    A good research question is essential to guide your research paper, dissertation, or thesis. All research questions should be: Focused on a single problem or issue. Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources. Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints. Specific enough to answer thoroughly.

  12. 100 Questions (and Answers) About Research Methods

    This invaluable guide answers the essential questions that students ask about research methods in a concise and accessible way. Available Formats. ISBN: 9781412992039. Paperback. Suggested Retail Price: $40.00. Bookstore Price: $32.00. ISBN: 9781452235585. Electronic Version. Suggested Retail Price: $33.00.

  13. How to Write a Research Paper

    Choose a research paper topic. Conduct preliminary research. Develop a thesis statement. Create a research paper outline. Write a first draft of the research paper. Write the introduction. Write a compelling body of text. Write the conclusion. The second draft.

  14. Research Quizzes

    Video Lessons (125) Quizzes ( 234 ) Understanding Research Methodology in Human Development View Quiz Evaluating Resources for Research Projects View Quiz General Guidelines for...

  15. LibGuides: Research Foundations: Chapter 1 Self Quiz

    The Pre-Research Process ; Decide on a Topic ; Find Background Information ; Refine Your Topic ; Develop a Thesis Statement ; Choose Keywords ; Create Search Statements ; Chapter 2 Self Quiz ; 3. Find Books & Media Toggle Dropdown. Search the Library Catalog ; Call Numbers ; Request Books ; Book Research Streamlined ; Viewing eBooks ; Access ...

  16. Scientific Writing

    a process by which independent scientists evaluate the technical merit of scientific research papers. a process by which a scientist's friends can give him or her advice. a method of typesetting in publishing. The process of peer review always ensures that a scientific paper is correct. true.

  17. Research Paper Quiz Questions And Answers!

    1. If you have good research skills, then when you're doing research, you should feel a bit like you are: A. Solving a mystery. B. Designing a puzzle. C. Digging in the ground to retrieve something. D. Classifying books in a research library. Correct Answer A. Solving a mystery. Explanation

  18. Multiple Choice Quizzes

    Try these quizzes to test your understanding. 1. Research analysis is the last critical step in the research process. True False 2. The final research report where a discussion of findings and limitations is presented is the easiest part for a researcher. True False 3.

  19. 80 Research Quizzes, Questions, Answers & Trivia

    Sample Question Which of the following is NOT a method of quantitative research? Grounded Theory Research Correlational Research Quasi-Experimental Research Experimental Research T Test MCQ Quiz With Answers How much do you know about the T-test? Think you can pass a quiz? Here, we present to you a T-Test MCQ Quiz with answers.

  20. What Should I Research? Quiz

    This engaging and interactive quiz is designed to guide you through a series of thought-provoking questions, unlocking a world of exciting research possibilities along the way. From the depths of history to cutting-edge technologies, this quiz will tap into your curiosity and provide tailored suggestions to inspire your academic journey.

  21. Writing a Research Paper

    1. Multiple Choice 3 minutes 1 pt What rule is best when choosing your research topic? Choose something that everyone has written about that way you know there will be information Choose a topic that is broad so you won't run out of things to talk about Most of your ideas are bad ones so just go with the first one

  22. Multiple Choice Questions

    Chapter 12: Classical Qualitative Methods. Chapter 13: Contextual Qualitative Methods. Chapter 14: Research Ethics. Chapter 15: Conclusion: Managing Uncertainty in Psychological Research. Revise your knowledge with these multiple choice quiz questions.Chapter 2: Research in Psychology: Objectives and IdealsChapter 3: Research Methods.

  23. [2402.05929] An Interactive Agent Foundation Model

    The development of artificial intelligence systems is transitioning from creating static, task-specific models to dynamic, agent-based systems capable of performing well in a wide range of applications. We propose an Interactive Agent Foundation Model that uses a novel multi-task agent training paradigm for training AI agents across a wide range of domains, datasets, and tasks. Our training ...

  24. Puzzle Type Personality Quiz

    This quiz is informed by research done in past years by the New York Times Games Audience Insights Group, including elements such as how many games people play per month, what features are ...

  25. Writing a Research Paper Quiz 2.3 Flashcards

    A research paper is an extended essay, which uses outside sources with documentation. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like One shortcut for finding good sources Is:, One of the essential steps to keeping a research paper free from plagiarising web sources is to:, Which of these questions is too factual to be ...

  26. Find Impactful And Top 10 Research Topics For Students

    6. Renewable Energy & Clean Technologies Research Topics. Initially, you might find it impossible to understand how to write a research paper for college, but these top 10 research topics for students will have you covered. Especially when your focus is on clean energy sources and the emission of greenhouse gases, there is a lot to cover nowadays.

  27. Data, Privacy Laws and Firm Production: Evidence from the GDPR

    In addition to working papers, the NBER disseminates affiliates' latest findings through a range of free periodicals — the NBER Reporter, the NBER Digest, the Bulletin on Retirement and Disability, the Bulletin on Health, and the Bulletin on Entrepreneurship — as well as online conference reports, video lectures, and interviews.

  28. The abortion pill case on its way to the Supreme Court cites a

    A research paper that raises questions about the safety of abortion has been retracted. The research is cited in a federal judge's ruling about the abortion pill mifepristone.

  29. Journal of Medical Internet Research

    This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue: Peer-to-Peer Support and Online Communities (538) Infodemiology and Infoveillance (1197) Public (e)Health, Digital Epidemiology and Public Health Informatics (528) Medicine 2.0: Social Media, Open, Participatory, Collaborative Medicine (1487)