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Historical Perspective and Medical Maladies of Alexander the Great

Shri k mishra.

1 Neurology, Olive View - University of California Los Angeles Medical Center, Los Angeles, USA

2 Neurology, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA

Adam Mengestab

3 Neurology, Scripps College, Claremont, USA

Shaweta Khosa

Alexander the Great (356 BC - 323 BC) was only 20 years old when he was named the next King of Macedonia after his father was assassinated. The following 11 years witnessed the evolution of an outstanding leader who expanded his empire from Egypt to the Indian frontier. Despite successfully conquering much of the world, he was afflicted with a febrile illness at the age of 32, which he battled for a mere 11 days before perishing. It has been almost 2,400 years since his death, but the exact cause remains a mystery. Did he die of natural causes or at the hands of conspirators? Numerous papers have been written about the illnesses suffered by Alexander, with the current evidence revealing a healthy 32-year-old man who developed fever and acute abdominal pain with rapid deterioration of his general condition leading to death within a short duration. We analyze various theories and discuss possible etiologies that may have contributed to his tragic death. Information was gathered from primary and secondary sources found through searching multiple online academic databases and the University of Southern California (USC), University of California Los Angeles (UCLA), and Harvard libraries. Unreliable sources and the unavailability of Alexander’s body for autopsy make reaching a definitive diagnosis an impossible task; however, based on existing information, we presume that he most probably died of a neurological cause due to acute necrotizing pancreatitis and encephalopathy secondary to peritonitis. Other potential causes include fulminant hepatic failure, acute demyelinating neuropathy or Guillain Barre Syndrome, and arsenic poisoning.

Introduction and background

In July of 356 BC, in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedonia, King Philip II and one of his wives, Olympias, Princess of Epirote, were blessed with a male child they named Alexander. From birth, it was prophesied that he would go on to become one of the most powerful and successful commanders in history [ 1 ].

Aristotle, a pupil of Plato and the most famous philosopher of his time, was appointed to train 13-year-old Alexander in rhetoric, science, and philosophy. This training had a deep impact on the development of Alexander’s personality, helping him become a well-mannered, noble, and educated young man [ 2 ].

In 338 BC, Alexander’s father, King Phillip, married Eurydice, the niece of Attalus. At the wedding banquet, there was a violent altercation between Alexander and a drunken King Philip regarding the lawful successor of the kingdom, which led to Alexander being exiled from Macedonia alongside his birth mother Epirote [ 3 ]. After six months, the tension between the father and son had calmed and Alexander was able to return. In June 336 BC, King Philip was assassinated at a theater by Pausanias. Alexander, who was only 20 years old at the time, became the next King of Macedonia following his father’s death [ 2 ].

Macedonia was in poor shape when Alexander came to power. The neighboring Greek cities were so dissatisfied with the young king being named that they began revolting. Alexander marched to the Danube, overcame the opposition, and then marched towards Greece. Later, Alexander crushed the revolt of Thebes in 335 BC. This incident sent a clear message to the rest of the world about the consequences of disobeying Alexander. Subsequently, the Athenians apologized and became loyal to the Macedonians [ 2 ].

Right from the start, Alexander had a hunger for more power. His series of successful military campaigns lasted the duration of his reign, amassing conquests from Gibraltar to Punjab. He invaded Persia the following year in 334 BC, beating Darius III in two decisive battles (Figure ​ (Figure1). 1 ). With victories in the cities of Granicus and Issus in modern-day Turkey, Alexander had conquered the Persian Empire [ 3 ]. Next, he continued taking cities along the Mediterranean with siege victories in Tyre and Gaza en route to Egypt, which had been under Persian rule at the time. Finally, Alexander crowned himself Pharaoh and founded Alexandria in 331 BC on the North Coast along the River Nile. Shortly afterward, in the city of Gaugamela in modern-day Iraq, Alexander would again face Darius III, who had now amassed an army twice the size of Alexander’s. Again, Alexander would take a bold victory, forcing Darius to flee and abandon his army. Darius III was then killed by his own troops [ 2 ].

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It is believed that Limnus, a Macedonian, had plans to kill Alexander by hiring Nicomachus, but Nicomachus refused to participate. Instead, Nicomachus revealed Limnus’s plan to his brother, and both the brothers went to Philotas, son of Parmenio, who was second in command of Alexander’s army and a loyal friend of Alexander’s father [ 2 ]. The brothers tried to meet Alexander, but Philotas kept avoiding them. The brothers were finally able to meet Alexander with the assistance of a third person and told him the entire story. Alexander wanted to examine all the facts, but before he could, his soldiers reported that Limnus had killed himself prior to his arrest. Alexander grew suspicious and executed both Philotas and his father, Parmenio. Soon after this incident, during a party, Alexander had a heated argument with Cleitus, one of his close friends. On one occasion, Callisthenes was invited to speak about the Macedonians’ wrong deeds to learn from them. Although Callisthenes was a powerful speaker, he had poor judgment. He said something offensive, which made Alexander furious. Some say that Alexander executed Callisthenes while others believe he died in prison [ 3 ].

Alexander launched a final campaign in India in 327 BC. He found an ally in King Taxiles, who offered Alexander the use of his city of Taxila and any supplies needed if he could defeat King Porus [ 3 ]. In 326 BC, Alexander defeated Porus’ army in a fierce battle on the Hydaspes River; Alexander had been victorious over every army from Greece to India. Nevertheless, in doing so, he lost thousands of his men and his favorite horse Bucephalus. Alexander’s men, at this point, had no enthusiasm to continue on the warpath across the Ganges; they were depleted of energy and reluctant to fight [ 4 ]. Seeing the state of his troops, Alexander finally decided to return.

It took many weeks to cross the Indus River and almost another week to cross the Gedrosian desert. It was a painful experience, as thousands of his soldiers died in the desert. Out of the 120,000 infantry and 15,000 cavalries that Alexander took into India, only one in four returned [ 4 ]. Furthermore, the invasion into India was a nightmare, as Alexander was hit with an arrow while taking over the Mallians, and several soldiers died in the Gedrosian desert. After hearing this news, many people started revolting against Macedonian rule, but Alexander was not disappointed and wanted to go on a new mission. This time, he proposed to sail around Africa to the Pillars of Hercules in Gibraltar [ 4 ].

Examination of the leading theories behind Alexander’s mysterious death

Alexander died on June 11, 323 BC, in the late afternoon at the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II in Babylon (Figure ​ (Figure2). 2 ). The text of historians like Plutarch and Arrian (1st and 2nd century AD) is based on the contents of the ‘Royal Journal,’ a diary maintained by the court of Alexander the Great [ 5 ]. The possible causes of his mysterious death are thoroughly listed below and grouped into five categories: alcohol-induced, infectious disease, poisoning, internal organ damage, and other complications.

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Alcohol-Induced

Acute necrotizing pancreatitis with encephalopathy:   Heavy alcohol intake can cause acute pancreatitis. Epigastric pain is the primary symptom that varies from mild to severe and is usually constant. It usually worsens when the patient is lying on his back with radiation to the flanks, back, or both. The patient usually sits in bed leaning slightly forward to reduce the pain and discomfort. Nausea and vomiting are present in more than two-thirds of patients. It can lead to sepsis, which may lead to death. However, Alexander had transient, rather than constant, abdominal pain. His fluctuating fever increased over approximately 11 days, which is not characteristic of septic necrotizing pancreatitis, which usually has a very acute and rapid deterioration, quickly leading to death [ 6 ]. The ascending weakness could possibly be due to Guillain Barre Syndrome, which is seen in some cases of acute pancreatitis [ 7 ].

Delirium tremens: Alexander periodically consumed large quantities of alcohol in the form of undiluted wine. During his illness, it is said that he opted to drink wine rather than water to quench his thirst [ 2 ]. Based on the circumstances, this increased intake could be interpreted as the cause of Alexander’s demise; however, the most notable of Alexander’s clinical symptoms, his fever, cannot be explained by excessive alcohol intoxication or withdrawal. Furthermore, vomiting, which is commonly observed in cases of delirium tremens, was absent. There was also no record of visual or tactile hallucinations. Therefore, Alexander did not meet the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) criteria for alcohol use disorder nor did he have the DSM-5 outlined symptoms for alcohol withdrawal and delirium tremens [ 8 ].

Alcoholic cirrhosis: Although Alexander’s aforementioned penchant for drinking wine was well-documented, there is no mention of cirrhosis symptoms in his records as ascites, jaundice, and edema were not observed [ 2 ]. As noted above, it was believed that Alexander drank wine during his illness only to quench his thirst.

Infectious Disease

West Nile encephalitis: According to the John Marr and Charles Calisher theory, Alexander’s death is attributed to complications of West Nile infection [ 9 ]. This theory is based on Plutarch’s description of the death of a flock of ravens as Alexander entered Babylon. West Nile virus was identified in Israel in 2000 and in America in 1999. Birds are the amplifying hosts. Diseased birds manifest various symptoms, including abnormal head and neck postures, ataxia, tremors, circling, disorientation, and impaired vision [ 9 ]. Mortality rates in infected birds are very high. West Nile encephalitis in humans usually manifests with mild fever, headache, body aches, and skin rash. High-grade fever, disorientation, convulsions, muscle weakness, paralysis, and coma occur in only a small percentage of severe cases, and death is rare. Acute flaccid paralysis as a complication of West Nile virus was noted in the United States in 1999 and later. In most cases, fever usually does not increase or last more than two weeks. Mental confusion and muscle weakness are the initial symptoms, but Alexander was well-oriented and performed his daily routine in the initial phase of his illness. Only later, during the course of his illness, he developed delirium and was unable to speak, shortly after which he died [ 2 ]. Encephalitis itself became a more frequent complication of West Nile virus fever in 1996, suggesting the recent appearance of a more pathogenic viral strain. However, serious neurological complications of West Nile virus only occur in less than 1% of patients infected [ 9 ].

Typhoid fever: David Oldach was the first to propose that Alexander died of typhoid based on the symptoms described by Plutarch [ 10 ]. It is suspected that Alexander may have been the victim of a poorly treated or untreated case of typhoid fever, complicated by enteric perforation. This could explain the sudden onset of a single episode of sharp abdominal pain. Furthermore, instances of typhoid fever complicated by intestinal perforation with subsequent peritonitis have been described in prior literature and can lead to acute demyelinating neuropathy or Guillain Barre Syndrome [ 7 ]. In typhoid fever, patients may present with delirium and splenomegaly in the end-stage of the disease. Patients with peritonitis can present with clammy perspiration, a fast, thready, and weak pulse, and Hippocratic facies. Due to the lack of antibiotics, the course was almost invariably fatal during Alexander’s period. Alexander’s face in his final days was described as expressionless; although bedridden, he was responsive enough for final farewells from his troops. The apathetic facies and delirium known as typhoid state that can accompany typhoid fever fit this description [ 11 ]. However, Oldach said that he and others believe that Alexander’s body’s lack of decay after death is a legend created by those who survived him, likely a red herring in his case, and should be discarded [ 10 ]. Alexander’s immune system may have been weakened after he returned from India due to the severe stress that he was under. Typhoid fever is a bacterial infection caused by Salmonella typhi and spreads by the fecal-oral route. Without antibiotics or other modern medical therapies, it is often fatal. Risk exists to travelers visiting countries where it is endemic; it was present in Babylon at the time [ 11 ]. Alexander traveled from Greece to the Indian frontier, which had many endemic areas of Salmonella typhi. The typical course of typhoid fever includes fever, loss of appetite, weakness, headache, constipation, and a typical, gradual, stepwise increase in severity of fever during the first week. There is a gradual increase in fever in the second week, and the skin becomes dry and hot. In the third week, fever continues to rise, and complications such as delirium, stupor, intestinal perforation, peritonitis, and intestinal bleeding can occur. The main issue with the validity of this theory is the timing of symptoms, as intestinal perforation in patients with typhoid fever often occurs in the third week or later.

Malaria: Alexander the Great bathed in the Euphrates River, which was infested by mosquitoes that carry malaria. Some believe that he became sick due to a relapse of malaria he had contracted in 336 BC. Malaria is caused by Plasmodium and transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes. He traveled extensively in malaria-endemic areas, especially in the final years of his life [ 12 ]. The symptoms and signs include chills, headache, muscle ache, and fever without periodicity in the first week. During the second week, chills followed by fever and sweating, a typical malarial paroxysm, are observed. After that, periodicity develops with intermittent or remittent fever. In between the episodes, the patient is afebrile and is largely asymptomatic. The third week shows a gradual decrease of malarial paroxysm, including the periodic fever. Patients typically improve to baseline after this acute/subacute period. There are multiple factors supporting this theory. Some symptoms seen in cerebral malaria, such as fever, chills, sweating, prostration, muscle ache, progressive weakness, stupor, decreased sensorium, and delirium, which can be seen with Plasmodium (P.) falciparum, were present in Alexander’s condition [ 11 ]. Although acute abdominal pain is not a typical feature of P. falciparum infection, it can occur due to intestinal ischemia secondary to mesenteric arterial thrombosis, a complication known as Algid malaria. Therefore, cerebral malaria might cause progressive neurological deterioration. Points against this theory are the absence of dark urine usually seen in P. falciparum, the absence of intermittent fever, the apathetic faces, and clinically, abdominal pain is more common in typhoid fever. Additionally, today, most malaria in Iraq/present-day Babylon is due to P. vivax, in which abdominal pain is absent [ 12 ].

Influenza: There was no report of any death in Alexander’s camp with similar signs and symptoms, so the chance of an isolated influenza case as a cause of his death is very remote.

Other theories of poisoning: Some believe he was poisoned. Various theories about who may have poisoned him include unsatisfied lieutenants, his jealous wife Roxane, his Regent of Macedonia Antipater, or his teacher Aristotle [ 5 ]. Some commonly known poisons from ancient times that induced fever were ergot, mycotoxins, and alkaloids [ 13 ]. However, mycotoxins are unlikely as they do not cause a sustained high fever.

Strychnine poisoning: Graham Phillips’s theory is that Alexander’s wife, Roxane, poisoned him with a little-known toxin of that period, which was extracted from the strychnine plant [ 14 ]. Strychnine grew only in the Indus Valley, so Roxane, being from Bactria located in present-day Afghanistan, could have had knowledge of and access to it. Its taste can be easily masked with wine. Signs and symptoms typically include violent seizures, muscle stiffness, tachycardia, tachypnea, apnea, and death. However, strychnine causes convulsions and muscle rigidity, both of which were absent in Alexander’s record. A gradual rise in fever and delirium are atypical of strychnine poisoning.

Toxicity of arsenical compounds: Plutarch mentions that Aristotle procured arsenic to poison Alexander. Arsenical compounds were used to treat ulcers and syphilis. In toxic doses, extensive transmural inflammation of enteric mucosa, severe abdominal pain, hemorrhagic gastroenteritis, hepatic necrosis [ 15 ], pulmonary edema, hypotension, and shock may occur. If these events are not fatal, progressive neuropathy, which may be indistinguishable from Guillain-Barre Syndrome, may yet claim the patient’s life [ 7 ]. However, arsenical compounds usually do not cause a sustained high fever.

Acute lead poisoning:   Lead water pipes and lead-based pottery glazes used as storage for homemade wine were responsible for epidemics of lead poisoning in ancient Rome [ 3 ]. Acute poisoning can lead to severe colicky abdominal pain, fatigue, paralysis, and encephalopathy, but again, acute lead poisoning does not explain the pattern of Alexander’s fever.

Belladonna poisoning: Belladonna poisoning may produce vocal cord paralysis, which could explain why Alexander, although conscious, could not speak in his last days. However, this does not explain the nature of Alexander’s fever.

Methanol poisoning: Methanol poisoning can produce peripheral neuropathy, which can lead to generalized weakness. However, visual symptoms and vomiting, typical of methanol poisoning, are not mentioned in Alexander’s records.

Adverse drug reaction (white hellebore): Another theory is the possibility of repeated poisoning with white hellebore [ 14 ]. The drug possesses strong purgative and anti-helminthic properties but is violently narcotic and causes bradycardia. However, it does not explain the sudden onset of acute abdominal pain and the fever pattern seen in Alexander’s case.

Internal Organ Damage

Amoebic liver abscess rupture: Although the parasitic amoebic infection was present at that time, a vast majority of cases are sub-acute. Symptoms typically develop gradually over weeks to months. Initial symptoms are non-specific, but in later stages, right upper quadrant pain becomes the main symptom. Fever is usually present but is intermittent and rarely exceeds 40 degrees Celsius. The patient is chronically ill with fever and abdominal tenderness in the right upper quadrant. Rupture of an amoebic abscess can lead to sudden severe abdominal pain. However, the time period and clinical features between the rupture of an abscess, presumably into the peritoneal cavity, and Alexander’s subsequent signs and symptoms point against a ruptured amoebic abscess as the cause of his death [ 8 ].

Perforated peptic ulcer (duodenal/gastric): Prior to the 20th century, it was a disease of young males that caused acute abdominal pain. However, most patients have a history of indigestion prior to perforation. Therefore, the nature of Alexander’s fever cannot be explained by this theory.

Right lower lobe (RLL) pneumonia, recrudescent empyema, and pleurisy: Acute right upper quadrant pain can be produced by irritation of diaphragmatic pleura. Alexander had a history of acute pneumonia in 333 BC and suffered a hemopneumothorax one year earlier due to an open chest wound caused by an arrow [ 2 ]. However, the abrupt onset and severity of pain and the course of his fever and illness are more suggestive of typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation.

Acute cholecystitis/acute ascending cholangitis: Cases of cholecystitis are commonly characterized by persistent abdominal pain in the right upper quadrant. While cases of cholangitis typically present with right upper quadrant pain, fevers, and jaundice, collectively comprising what is known as Charcot’s triad. Sepsis and delirium have also been observed in cholangitis cases, which when presenting alongside Charcot’s triad, comprise Reynold’s pentad. Obstruction of the biliary tree can occur due to stones or parasitic infection and is less likely due to tumors in patients younger than 32 years old. However, gall bladder perforation is rare at age 32, and the absence of jaundice in the records argues against this theory.

Other Complications

Carotid dissection: Andrew Williams and Robert Arnott suggest traumatic dissection of one of his internal carotid arteries six years prior to his death, in 329 BC in the Persian city of Cyropolis, caused by being hit by a stone from a local slinger, which struck Alexander’s head/neck and led to transient blindness and loss of speech [ 16 ]. Signs and symptoms usually include mild headache, Horner’s syndrome with unilateral dilatation of the pupil, cranial nerve palsies, transient ischaemic attack (TIA), aphasia, loss of consciousness, hemiparesis, occasional ischemic optic neuropathy, transient unilateral blurring, or loss of vision. The patient may be initially asymptomatic but can quickly develop symptoms due to embolization of thrombus at the site of dissection after an interval of a few hours to days. However, this theory cannot explain the course of his fever and illness. In addition, there is a lack of cardinal signs and symptoms in the long period between dissection and death, such as hemiparesis, hemisensory loss, headache, and Horner syndrome.

Complications of the congenital scoliotic syndrome: Hutan Ashrafian proposed this theory based on numismatic and sculpture studies [ 17 ]. He noticed a portrait of Alexander on a Greek coin revealing a facial horn which suggests a possibility of scoliotic epidermal nevus syndrome [ 18 ]. Additionally, adults with Klippel-Feil syndrome may present with a short neck, cervical deformity, oculomotor findings, facial asymmetry, abnormal gait, orthodontic defects, and a family history of limb irregularities. Neurofibromatosis can result in malaise, pyrexia, and neurological deterioration. Epidermal nevus syndrome could account for cervical scoliosis, familial musculoskeletal deformities with seizures, ocular irregularities, and facial horns. Repeated cervical trauma can cause quadriplegia. Furthermore, the asymmetry of his head, shoulders, and neck axis and asymmetry of the eyes with limited adduction in the marble bust of 2nd and 1st BC may indicate the exotropic Duane syndrome II. Heterochromia irides and abnormal dentition may be associated with it. However, it is difficult to establish the diagnosis in the absence of Alexander’s body. The use of iconographic records, such as numismatics and sculpture, to provide evidence of clinical symptoms is shown to be highly misleading. However, there is a whole series of extant sculptures of Apollo, young athletes, women poets, such as Sapho, prior to or contemporary with the bust of Alexander, which display similar features as enumerated by Ashrafian as being abnormal [ 17 ]. 

Conclusions

As detailed above, Alexander the Great was the greatest warrior of his time. He died in the late spring of 323 BC in Babylon, and the precise cause of his death has never been ascertained. It is believed that he had many past and present illnesses, including post-traumatic transient cortical blindness, malaria, toxin poisoning, and alcoholism, which may have contributed to his death. The exact cause of his death is difficult to establish. Based on the literature review, the chain of events leading to his terminal illness seems to highlight undue stress from several sources, including demoralization due to his lack of command over his soldiers, which may have weakened his immune system, making him more susceptible to illness. He had been drinking very heavily for a few days before the onset of his illness. He suffered from acute abdominal pain followed by febrile illness, delirium, dysarthria leading to coma, and death. In addition, we feel Alexander suffered from acute necrotizing pancreatitis complicated by peritonitis leading to disseminated cerebritis as well as bacterial meningitis causing encephalopathy; this ultimately resulted in coma and his subsequent death. Other possible causes include Guillain Barre syndrome and poisoning from arsenic compounds. Unless Alexander the Great’s remains are recovered, we may never be able to determine the exact cause of his death with certainty.

The content published in Cureus is the result of clinical experience and/or research by independent individuals or organizations. Cureus is not responsible for the scientific accuracy or reliability of data or conclusions published herein. All content published within Cureus is intended only for educational, research and reference purposes. Additionally, articles published within Cureus should not be deemed a suitable substitute for the advice of a qualified health care professional. Do not disregard or avoid professional medical advice due to content published within Cureus.

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Alexander the great.

Alexander the Great, a Macedonian king, conquered the eastern Mediterranean, Egypt, the Middle East, and parts of Asia in a remarkably short period of time. His empire ushered in significant cultural changes in the lands he conquered and changed the course of the region’s history.

Geography, Human Geography, Social Studies, Ancient Civilizations

Photo of a marble bust of a man.

Photograph by Kenneth Garrett, National Geographic

Photo of a marble bust of a man.

Alexander the Great , also known as Alexander III or Alexander of Macedonia is known as one of the greatest generals in all history.

Alexander was born in 356 B.C.E. in Pella, Macedonia, to King Philip II. As a young boy, Alexander was taught to read, write, and play the lyre. He developed a life-long love of reading and music. When Alexander was a teenager, his father hired Aristotle to be his private tutor. He studied with Aristotle for three years and from Aristotle ’s teachings, Alexander developed a love of science, particularly of medicine and botany . Alexander included  botanists and scientists in his army to study the lands he conquered .

In 336 B.C.E., at age 20, Alexander became king of Macedonia when a political rival assassinated his father. Alexander began his reign by subduing rivals in the Greek and Macedonian regions. At a council of the League of Corinth, he was chosen as the commander of a military invasion of Asia. King Alexander began his invasion of the Middle East in 334 B.C.E. He spent most of his reign on a military campaign through northeast Africa and southwestern Asia.

Alexander built many new cities in the lands he conquered , including Alexandria in Egypt. He went on to conquer the lands of the Persian Empire, establishing more cities, and like Alexandria, often naming them after himself. His conquest continued through Asia until he reached the shores of the Ganga (Ganges) River in India. At this point, his army refused to continue further into India, exhausted and discouraged by heavy rains.

Alexander was 32 when he died in 323 B.C.E.

During his 13-year reign as the king of Macedonia, Alexander created one of the largest empires of the ancient world, stretching from Greece to northwestern India.

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Alexander the Great by Joseph Roisman LAST REVIEWED: 27 January 2023 LAST MODIFIED: 25 February 2016 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780195389661-0114

It has been said about Alexander the Great (b. 356–d. 323  BCE ) that his name marked the end of an old world epoch and the beginning of a new one. Alexander’s empire that stretched from the Danube to India indeed ushered in the Hellenistic age, when Greek culture expanded and merged with Asian and African cultures in the territories he conquered and even beyond. While Alexander’s military record has gained him lasting fame, views of his character, his treatment of compatriots and subjects, and even the merits of his accomplishments have varied greatly since Antiquity. The continuing interest in Alexander has produced numerous works of scholarship and fiction that this article does not presume to cover. Instead, preference is given to recent scholarly works, in which older studies are cited, as well as to works deemed influential, innovating, or useful, although the decision about their significance is bound to be controversial. The article is arranged by topics, with less consideration to the chronology of the campaign. It also does not include works on ancient Macedonia and the Achaemenid Empire. All dates in this entry are BCE unless noted otherwise. Lists of common abbreviations of authors and works used by scholars can be found in the Oxford Classical Dictionary or the bibliographical journal L’Année Philologique .

General Overviews and Monographs

Johann Gustav Droysen’s idealized portrait of Alexander in his History of Alexander the Great , first published in 1833 ( Geschichte Alexanders des Großen [Hamburg: F. Perthes]), has exerted influence on scholars and laypersons up until today. Not everyone, however, felt similar admiration for the Macedonian king, and especially not Karl Julius Beloch. This German historian depicted Alexander in his “Greek history” ( Griechische Geschichte , 2d new ed. 4 vols. [Strassburg: Trübner, 1912–1917]) as a tyrant who allowed the Orient to conquer him in a way that paved the road to Byzantium. Droysen and Beloch represent the two polar views of Alexander, with the former picking sources that favored the king and the latter taking a much harsher and more critical approach. Indeed, the diversity of opinions of Alexander goes back to the sources about him that informed their modern interpreters. Individual Alexander historians can be placed anywhere on the continuum between Droysen and Beloch. Often, and as was the case with Droysen and Beloch, the experience and historical circumstances of historians affected to some degree their interpretations of Alexander. Of the citations listed in this section, Tarn 1948 , Hammond 1989 , Lane Fox 1973 , and Martin and Blackwell 2012 hold a high opinion of the king, while Bosworth 1988 , Schachermeyer 1973 , and to a lesser extent Green 1992 are much more critical. The opinions of Cartledge 2004 , Briant 2010 , Anson 2013 , and Worthington 2014 are mixed. Since Bosworth published his history of Alexander in 1988, no other monograph has surpassed it. See also Worthington 2004 , cited under Alexander’s Youth and Philip II .

Anson, Edward M. 2013. Alexander the Great: Themes and issues . London: Bloomsbury Academic.

As opposed to a biography of the king, the book discusses the main issues of his career and its Greco-Macedonian background. Succinct summaries of scholarly opinions and the author’s suggested solutions to problems related to the history of Alexander makes it a useful work.

Bosworth, Albert Brian. 1988. Conquest and empire: The reign of Alexander the Great . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.

Written by the leading expert on the topic, this book is arguably the best account of Alexander’s history to date. In addition to describing the Asian expedition, the book examines key aspects of Alexander’s reign and campaign.

Briant, Pierre. 2010. Alexander the Great and his empire: A short introduction . Translated by Amelie Kuhrt. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.

The book is an updated and revised version of the author’s 2002 Alexandre le Grand (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France). It deals with the campaign thematically and with subjects such as Alexander’s motives, administration, the Persian response, numismatic and Near Eastern evidence, and his death. Briant’s Alexander is essentially a rational, pragmatic king.

Cartledge, Paul. 2004. Alexander the Great: The hunt for a new past . New York: Vintage.

A well-written and user-friendly account, which, although aiming at the nonspecialist, is well suited as an introduction to the subject.

Green, Peter. 1992. Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: A historical biography . Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.

When first published in 1974 the book served as a welcomed antidote to the glorifying portrait of the king in Tarn 1948 . It is still valuable for its expansive panorama, insights, and balanced view of Alexander.

Hammond, Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière. 1989. Alexander the Great: King, commander and statesman . 2d ed. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes.

Written by a leading expert on ancient Macedonia, the book examines Alexander’s leadership qualities and especially his excellence as a general. The view is highly favorable, and the author refuses at times to acknowledge the value of sources other than Arrian’s Anabasis .

Lane Fox, Robin. 1973. Alexander the Great . London: Allen Lane.

This is one of the more popular books on Alexander and has been translated into a number of languages. The style is engaging, and the king resembles a Homeric hero more in line with Droysen than with Beloch or Bosworth. The notes are inconveniently grouped at the end of the book but are exhaustive, especially about the ancient evidence.

Martin, Thomas R., and Christopher Blackwell. 2012. Alexander the Great: The story of an ancient life . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.

DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139049498

An accessible book that offers a highly positive, at times even admiring, portrait of the king in contrast to the critical approach more common in current scholarship.

Schachermeyer, Fritz. 1973. Alexander der Grosse: Das Problem seiner Persönlichkeit und seines Wirkens . Sitzungsberichte der philosophisch-historischen Klasse 285. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.

This hefty book is a reprint with occasional updates and modifications of the author’s 1949 monograph Alexander der Grosse: Ingenium und Macht (Graz, Austria: A. Pustet). There is much to learn from the erudite analysis, but the irritating rhetorical style, the excessive infusing of psychology, and the impact of the Nazi experience on the interpretation detract from the book’s value. The author’s paying tribute to Nazi ideology in previous publications should not be ignored.

Tarn, William Woodthorpe. 1948. Alexander the Great . 2 vols. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.

Much inspired by Droysen’s Geschichte Alexanders des Großen , Tarn’s Alexander is a flawless leader who dreamt of the unity of mankind under his benevolent rule. The thesis was demolished especially by Ernest Badian’s works (see Badian 2012 and Badian 1976 , cited under Collections of Papers , and Badian 1958 , cited under Alexander’s Aims and Plans ). Yet a number of individual investigations in the second volume are still useful.

Worthington, Ian. 2014. By the spear: Philip II, Alexander the Great, and the rise and fall of the Macedonian Empire . Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

The book describes the reigns of Philip II and Alexander and compares and contrasts the challenges they faced as well as their roles as empire- and nation- builders, with Philip getting the higher marks.

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Alexander the Great

By: History.com Editors

Updated: February 5, 2024 | Original: November 9, 2009

Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great was an ancient Macedonian ruler and one of history’s greatest military minds who, as King of Macedonia and Persia, established the largest empire the ancient world had ever seen. By turns charismatic and ruthless, brilliant and power hungry, diplomatic and bloodthirsty, Alexander inspired such loyalty in his men they’d follow him anywhere and, if necessary, die in the process. Though Alexander the Great died before realizing his dream of uniting a new realm, his influence on Greek and Asian culture was so profound that it inspired a new historical epoch—the Hellenistic Period.

Where Was Alexander the Great From?

Alexander III was born in Pella, Macedonia , in 356 B.C. to King Philip II and Queen Olympias—although legend had it his father was none other than Zeus, the ruler of the Greek gods .

Philip II was an impressive military man in his own right. He turned Macedonia (a region on the northern part of the Greek peninsula) into a force to be reckoned with, and he fantasized about conquering the massive Persian Empire .

At age 12, Alexander showed impressive courage when he tamed the wild horse Bucephalus, an enormous stallion with a furious demeanor. The horse became his battle companion for most of Alexander’s life.

When Alexander was 13, Philip called on the great philosopher Aristotle to tutor his son. Aristotle sparked and fostered Alexander’s interest in literature, science, medicine and philosophy.

Alexander was just 16 when Philip went off to battle and left his son in charge of Macedonia. In 338 B.C., Alexander saw the opportunity to prove his military worth and led a cavalry against the Sacred Band of Thebes—a supposedly unbeatable, select army made up entirely of male lovers—during the Battle of Chaeronea.

Alexander put his vigor and bravery on display, and his cavalry decimated the Sacred Band of Thebes.

research paper on alexander the great

Ancient Empires

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Alexander Becomes King

In 336 B.C., Alexander’s father Philip was assassinated by his bodyguard Pausanias. Just 20 years old, Alexander claimed the Macedonian throne and killed his rivals before they could challenge his sovereignty.

He also quashed rebellions for independence in northern Greece. Once he’d cleaned house, Alexander left to follow in his father’s footsteps and continue Macedonia’s world domination.

Alexander appointed the general Antipater as regent and headed for Persia with his army. They crossed the Hellespont, a narrow strait between the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, and faced Persian and Greek forces at the Granicus River. Victory went to Alexander and the Macedonians.

Alexander then headed south and easily took the city of Sardes. But his army encountered resistance in the cities of Miletus, Mylasa and Halicarnassus. Under siege yet not beaten, Halicarnassus held out long enough for King Darius III, the newest Persian king, to amass a substantial army.

Gordian Knot

From Halicarnassus, Alexander headed north to Gordium, home of the fabled Gordian knot , a group of tightly-entwined knots yoked to an ancient wagon. Legend had it whoever unwound the knot would conquer all of Asia.

As the story goes, Alexander took on the challenge but was unable to unravel the knot by hand. He took another approach and sliced through the knot with his sword, claiming triumph.

Battle of Issus

In 333 B.C., Alexander and his men encountered a massive Persian army led by King Darius III near the town of Issus in southern Turkey. Alexander’s forces were greatly outnumbered in men but not in experience or the determination for revenge and to claim Persia’s great wealth, much of it plundered.

As it became clear Alexander would win the Battle of Issus, Darius fled with what remained of his troops, leaving his wife and family behind. His mother, Sisygambis, was so upset she disowned him and adopted Alexander as her son.

By now it was clear that Alexander was a shrewd, ruthless and brilliant military leader—in fact, he never lost a battle in his life. He would build an empire on the back of his motto, “there is nothing impossible to him who will try.”

Battle of Tyre

Next, Alexander took over the Phoenician cities of Marathus and Aradus. He rejected a plea from Darius for peace and took the towns of Byblos and Sidon.

He then laid siege to the heavily fortified island of Tyre in January 332 B.C., after the Tyrians refused him entry. But Alexander had no navy to speak of and Tyre was surrounded by water.

Alexander instructed his men to build a causeway to reach Tyre. All went well until they came within striking distance of the Tyrians. Again and again, Tyrian forces thwarted Alexander’s clever attempts to gain entry, and he realized he needed a strong navy to penetrate their defenses.

He amassed a large fleet, finally breached the city’s walls in July 332 B.C. and executed thousands of Tyrians for daring to defy him; many others were sold into slavery.

Alexander Enters Egypt

After rejecting another peace offer from Darius, Alexander set out for Egypt . He was sidelined at Gaza, however, and forced to endure another lengthy siege. After several weeks, he took the town and entered Egypt where he established the city that still bears his name: Alexandria.

Alexander traveled to the desert to consult the oracle of Ammon, a god of supposed good counsel. Legends abound about what transpired at the oracle, but Alexander kept mum about the experience. Still, the visit furthered speculation Alexander was a deity.

Alexander Becomes King of Persia

After conquering Egypt, Alexander faced Darius and his massive troops at Gaugamela in October 331 B.C. Following fierce fighting and heavy losses on both sides, Darius fled and was assassinated by his own troops. It’s said Alexander was sad when he found Darius’s body and he gave him a royal burial.

Finally rid of Darius, Alexander proclaimed himself King of Persia. But another Persian leader, Bessus (also thought to be Darius’s murderer), had also claimed the Persian throne. Alexander couldn’t let the claim stand.

After relentless pursuit by Alexander, Bessus’s troops handed Bessus over to Ptolemy, Alexander’s good friend, and he was mutilated and executed. With Bessus out of the way, Alexander had full control of Persia.

Proskynesis

To gain credibility with the Persians, Alexander took on many Persian customs. He began dressing like a Persian and adopted the practice of proskynesis, a Persian court custom that involved bowing down and kissing the hand of others, depending on their rank.

The Macedonians were less than thrilled with the changes in Alexander and his attempt to be viewed as a deity. They refused to practice proskynesis and some plotted his death.

Increasingly paranoid, Alexander ordered the death of one of his most esteemed generals, Parmenio, in 330 B.C., after Parmenio's son Philotas was convicted of plotting an assassination attempt against Alexander (and also killed).

Alexander Kills Cleitus

In 328 B.C., Cleitus, another general and close friend of Alexander, also met a violent end. Fed up with Alexander’s new Persian-like persona, a drunk Cleitus continually insulted Alexander and minimized his achievements.

Pushed too far, Alexander killed Cleitus with a spear, a spontaneous act of violence that anguished him. Some historians believe Alexander killed his general in a fit of drunkenness—a persistent problem that plagued him through much of his life.

Alexander struggled to capture Sogdia, a region of the Persian Empire that remained loyal to Bessus. The Sogdians found a refuge at the pinnacle of a rock and refused Alexander’s demand to surrender.

Not one to take “no” for an answer, Alexander sent some of his men to scale the rock and take the Sogdians by surprise. Supposedly, one of those on the rock was a girl named Roxane.

As the story goes, Alexander fell in love with Roxane on sight. He married her despite her Sogdian heritage and she joined him on his journey.

Alexander Enters India

In 327 B.C., Alexander marched on Punjab, India. Some tribes surrendered peacefully; others did not. In 326 B.C., Alexander met King Porus of Paurava at the Hydaspes River.

Porus’s army was less experienced than Alexander’s, but they had a secret weapon—elephants. Even so, after a fierce battle in a raging thunderstorm, Porus was defeated.

One event took place at Hydaspes which devastated Alexander: the death of his beloved horse, Bucephalus. It’s unclear if he died from battle wounds or of old age, but Alexander named the city of Bucephala after him.

Alexander wanted to press on and attempt to conquer all of India, but his war-weary soldiers refused, and his officers convinced him to return to Persia. So Alexander led his troops down the Indus River and was severely wounded during a battle with the Malli.

After recovering, he divided his troops, sending half of them back to Persia and half to Gedrosia, a desolate area west of the Indus River.

A Mass Wedding

In early 324 B.C., Alexander reached the city of Susa in Persia. Wanting to unite the Persians and Macedonians and create a new race loyal only to him, he ordered many of his officers to marry Persian princesses at a mass wedding. He also took two more wives for himself.

The Macedonian army resented Alexander’s attempt to change their culture and many mutinied. But after Alexander took a firm stand and replaced Macedonian officers and troops with Persians, his army backed down.

To further diffuse the situation, Alexander returned their titles and hosted a huge reconciliation banquet.

How Did Alexander the Great Die?

By 323 B.C., Alexander was head of an enormous empire and had recovered from the devastating loss of his friend Hephaestion—who was also reputed to be one of Alexander’s homosexual male lovers.

Thanks to his insatiable urge for world supremacy, he started plans to conquer Arabia. But he’d never live to see it happen. Some historians say Alexander died of malaria or other natural causes; others believe he was poisoned. Either way, he never named a successor.

His death—and the bloody infighting for control that happened afterwards—unraveled the empire he’d fought so hard to create.

How Old Was Alexander the Great When He Died?

After surviving battle after fierce battle, Alexander the Great died in June 323 B.C. at age 32.

Why Was Alexander the Great ‘Great’?

Many conquered lands retained the Greek influence Alexander introduced, and several cities he founded remain important cultural centers even today. The period of history from his death to 31 B.C., when his empire folded, would come to be known as the Hellenistic period , from “Hellazein,” which means, “to speak Greek or identify with the Greeks.” Alexander the Great is revered as one of the most powerful and influential leaders the ancient world ever produced.

Alexander the Great. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Alexander the Great. Livius.org. Alexander the Great of Macedon Biography. Historyofmacedonia.org . Alexander of Macedonia. San Jose State University . Bucephalus. Ancient History Encyclopedia. The Battle of Issus. Livius.org. The Sacred Band of Thebes, from Plutarch, Life of Pelopidas . Fordham University . The Siege of Tyre (332 BCE). Livius.org.

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Alexander the Great: A Very Short Introduction

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Alexander the Great: A Very Short Introduction

(page 1) p. 1 Introduction

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The Introduction outlines the life of Alexander the Great, born in 356 bc , king of Macedon from 336 until his death in 323 through what we can glean from the pictorial and literary evidence we have to hand. A further vision of Alexander can be found on coins issued in the period after his death by those who took control of parts of his empires. There are also other images of Alexander that can help us build up a picture of how he was seen by his contemporaries or near-contemporaries. A great deal about the man can be understood by giving greater weight than is usually given to contemporary documents.

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World history

Course: world history   >   unit 2.

  • Philip of Macedon unifies Greece
  • Alexander the Great takes power
  • Alexander the Great conquers Persia
  • Diadochi and the Hellenistic Period

Alexander the Great

  • Alexander the Great was famous for his military power and is a legendary figure in history.
  • Much of what we know about Alexander the Great is unreliable and steeped in myth; a lot of these mythologies were used by Alexander’s successors.

A history steeped in myth

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Why was Alexander the Great So Successful In His Conquests

research paper on alexander the great

In the public's mind, few well-known conquerors in history match the exploits of Alexander the Great. In just a few years, from 334-330 BC, Alexander would conquer the largest empire the world had known and establish his empire that eventually stretched from Greece to India. Furthermore, Alexander began a process where Greek culture began to intermix with ancient Near Eastern, Egyptian, Central Asian, and Indian cultures that influenced much of the Old World for many centuries.

The exchange of ideas and trade brought about an era of unprecedented prosperity and knowledge that advanced the ancient world's sciences. It led to many discoveries that would not be replicated until the Renaissance in the 15 or 16th century AD. What is remarkable is he achieved all of this by the age of 32 at the time of his death in Babylon. However, the root of all the social change that would eventually influence Europe, the Near East, Egypt, and much of Asia rested in his ability to conquer many territories and do it quickly. The question is, how did he do this?

What region did Alexander conquer first?

research paper on alexander the great

Alexander took power after the death of his father, Philip II of Macedon, who had already planned to invade the Persian, Achaemenid Empire. [1] His first battles were Greece and the Balkans, where he consolidated his power while suppressing several revolts.

Shortly after crossing into Asia Minor in 334 BC with perhaps 30,000-50,000 troops, Alexander quickly won his first major battle at Granicus. [2] This victory allowed him to take the western half of Asia Minor. After a few sieges and taking Sardis, one of the most important cities in Asia Minor, he proceeded toward Syria. He encountered the Persian King Darius III in 333 at Issus's battle. [3] This is the first major battle he had with the Persian king, and once again, Alexander proved his excellent strategic thinking by outflanking the Persian army through his cavalry. He made a direct attack on the Persian king's centerline, where this key moment in the battle became a famous Roman-era mosaic found in Pompeii (Figure 1).

How did Alexander conquer the Levant, Syria, and Egypt?

After the battle of Issus, Alexander took the Levant and the coastal Mediterranean cities, which were important trading cities and allowed the Achaemenids to derive much of their wealth, establish their navy, and proceed into Egypt. In Syria and the Levant, his only major encounters were the sieges of Tyre and Gaza in 332 BC. [4] In Egypt, he was quickly accepted by the local population, as the Egyptians had revolted against the Achaemenids not long before Alexander and, therefore, saw this as an opportunity for new leadership.

Here, he became considered Amun's son, the chief of the Egyptian pantheon, further exalting him in his new subjects' eyes. Alexander also began the process of founding cities, the most famous of which was Alexandria. Its position along the Mediterranean reflects a key change, where Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean worlds would be more strongly integrated into culture and trade in the centuries to come. [5] That was Alexander's intention from the outset, showing that he likely had long-term, strategic thinking about the nature and future of his conquered lands long after his own time.

What was the Battle of Gaugamela?

research paper on alexander the great

The Achaemenids perhaps had one more great chance to defeat Alexander at Gaugamela's battle near modern-day Erbil. Once again, Alexander's tactics proved decisive where his forces formed a wedge-shaped attack that then tore into Darius' center, causing the king to flee the battle likely. With this battle secure, all of Mesopotamia fell to Alexander, and Alexander entered Babylon's great city without any need for combat. At Babylon, Alexander perhaps decided he would make the city the new capital of his now vast empire, as it would unite the Greek and Near Eastern worlds more closely. Alexander then went on to take Susa, the old capital of the Persians, and then the ceremonial capital of Persepolis, which was at least partially burned most likely by Alexander's troops.

research paper on alexander the great

Only one more major battle was fought against the Persians at the Persian Gates battle, a strategic crossing. [6] After this, Darius III was killed by one of his generals, and Achaemenid factions continued to lead a guerilla-style war against Alexander. However, they squabbled between themselves over the remains of their empire.

What was the Fall of the Achaemenids?

This division allowed Alexander to reach Central Asia with only minor resistance easily. He founded many cities along the way that gained importance during the rise of the Silk Road. This included the city of Kandahar in Afghanistan and eventually reaching Tajikistan, almost near the edge of Tibet. His wars continued in Central Asia and India, where he initially encountered major resistance. [7]

Alexander's battles were the first where European armies had encountered war elephants, which likely caused great fear in his army before eventually overcoming them in battle. Nevertheless, the difficulty of long campaigning and undoubtedly losing many men led to his men tiring of conflict and eventually forcing Alexander to pull his forces back, finally reaching once again Babylon. By the time Alexander finished campaigning, he had created the first empire that connected Europe with Central Asia (Figure 2).

Why Was Alexander the Great Successful?

Alexander's success lay in his military genius, knowing how to use his cavalry and troops precisely at key moments in battle. It seemed he was close to defeat several times but could use the situation to his advantage by luring his enemies into a deeper trap. Furthermore, his troops were well trained in holding their positions and not panicking in battle. [8] However, a lot of the success had little to do with Alexander but the Achaemenid Empire's nature.

The Achaemenids were perhaps the most successful empire up to that point. They had succeeded in uniting a vast territory and genuinely integrating it into a cohesive realm that traded extensively and had well-maintained roads. The Achaemenid state was prosperous, and people had by then began to move and live in areas far from their homelands. The world, in essence, had become smaller thanks to many of their tolerant policies.

What was Alexander's legacy?

While it is true that Egypt and some other regions had revolted against them, many had benefited from the Achaemenids. Therefore, it is no wonder that Alexander marries Persian royalty and eventually takes on the regalia of the Achaemenid kings. This is also why he had planned for Babylon to be his new capital. It was one of the chief cities and capitals of the Achaemenid Empire despite being in Mesopotamia. Commerce had now become the glue that bound many regions, and Alexander understood this. This probably led to his men resenting Alexander's penchant for the Achaemenids, as the Greeks still held beliefs that the Persians were not on the same level as them.

While Alexander died before realizing his dream of a super empire, the east's benefits became more apparent to his generals and men. Many of them stayed after the wars. New Greek populations began to migrate to the Near East, and the process of mixing Hellenic and eastern cultures had started. The mixture of Greece and the Nearly mixed knowledge and created an integrated understanding that facilitated the rise of astronomy, physics, mathematics, and other scientific fields. Alexander's legacy lasted long after his death. His military success paved the way for the tremendous Classical achievements that eventually became one of the foundations of the Renaissance and our modern Western world.

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  • ↑ For more on Alexander's father and his plans of conquests, see: Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly, and Daniel Ogden, eds. 2010. Philip II and Alexander the Great: Father and Son, Lives and Afterlives . Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press.
  • ↑ For more on this battle, see: Matthews, Rupert. 2008. Alexander the Great at the Battle of Granicus . Stroud: Spellmount.
  • ↑ For more on the battle of Issus, see Delbrück, Hans. 1975. History of the Art of War . Lincoln, Neb: University of Nebraska Press/ Bison Book, pg. 191.
  • ↑ For more on Alexander's campaigns in the Levant and Syria, see: Freeman, Philip. 2011. Alexander the Great . New York: Simon & Schuster, pg. 26.
  • ↑ For more on Alexander's time in Egypt, Bowman, Alan K. 1996. Egypt after the Pharaohs: 332 BC-AD 642  ; from Alexander to the Arab Conquest. 2. paperback printing. Berkeley, Calif.: Univ. of California Press, pg. 22
  • ↑ For More on the Battles of Gaugamela and Alexander's later battles against the Persians, see: Wilcken, Ulrich, and Eugene N. Borza. 1967. Alexander the Great. Norton Library. New York: Norton, pg. 60.
  • ↑ For more on Alexander's campaigns in Central Asia and India, see: Roy, Kaushik. 2004. India’s Historic Battles: From Alexander the Great to Kargil . Delhi : Bangalore: Permanent Black ; Distributed by Orient Longman, pg. 29
  • ↑ For more on the battle tactics of Alexander, see Bose, Partha Sarathi. 2004. Alexander the Great’s Art of Strategy: Lessons from the Great Empire Builder . London: Profile.

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How Alexander the Great Impacted the spread of Hellenistic Culture

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research paper on alexander the great

Alexander the Great. A Linked Open World. Scripta Antiqua

Karsten Dahmen

David D G Grant

The conquests for Philip II and his son, Alexander III, have traditionally been greeted a fair degree of romanticism in modern scholarship through a process of accretion of earlier laudatory sources. Philip's career in Europe has often been termed 'responsible for uniting the Greeks' and Alexander's campaign in Asia hailed as the 'catalyst that spread Hellenic culture east'. Admiring scholars such as WW Tarn promoted the notion of vision of 'a brotherhood of man' encompassing the Persian population and Hellenic invaders, breaking down the Greek-barbarian divide still perpetuated by Aristotle. Ancient commentators such as Plutarch pondered the 'philosophical commonwealth' of Alexander. But the theme of the years either side of Alexander's death was fear and instability, both in Greece and in Asia. If reviewed dispassionately, ancient sources point a rather more complicated picture, which undermines these notions. Alexander's treatment of Greeks, both in Greece itself and on campaign, led to continuing national divides which were only widened by his campaign. The administration of the Persian Empire late in his conquest was never the homonoia some imagine he intended. This paper intends to outline, using ancient sources, modern scholarship, epigraphic and archaeological evidence, the upheaval caused both in the campaign years and in the decades that followed, in Greece, Macedon and Persia. It covers the choices the dispossessed campaign soldiers had to make, the drain on the economies by the Hellenistic armies and the resulting economic upheaval. Above all it serves to illustrate that Alexander never had more than immediate conquest in mind and operated through a 'reactive' system of flawed statecraft. The resulting questions that need to be asked: Did Alexander consciously spread Hellenic culture, or did he handcuff it? Did he unite the Graeco-Persian world, or, in fact divide it?

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Adil Hashim Ali , Andreas P. Parpas

Marian Hassan

Pierre Briant

African Research Review

Monica Aneni

STUDIA HERCYNIA XXV/1, 82–104

Guendalina D.M. (Guen) Taietti

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Alexander the Great: Western Civilization Research Paper

Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon) was an ancient Greek ruler and the king of the state of Macedon (Cummings, 2004, p.54). He was a student of Aristotle, and established a vast empire by the time he was 30 years of age. The empire stretched from the Ionian Sea to the Himalayas, and was a sign of his greatness.

Alexander won every battle and expanded his empire by conquering smaller empires whose armies were not as powerful as his. He assumed the throne after the assassination of his father, Philip II of Macedon in 336 BC (Cummings, 2004, p.54).

A well-established kingdom and a strong army were some of the reasons why he became so great. In his capacity as an army commander, politician, king, explorer and scholar, Alexander used several strategies to expand his empire that encompassed people from different ethnic backgrounds. He had immense influence on western civilization mainly because he introduced the Greek language, science and culture to the new empires that he conquered in an effort to expand his empire (Cummings, 2004, p.58).

Alexander used his powerful army to conquer the world during his time. Whenever he conquered new empires, he introduced the Greek language, science knowledge and other aspects of Greek civilization (Noble, 2008, p.95). As an explorer, Alexander discovered that the world extended beyond the Indus River.

He made this discovery with the aid of his geographers who helped him to explore new lands. In addition, he introduced certain aspects of different cultures that he felt were useful in conquering more empires and continuing his reign.

One of the main influences of Alexander on western civilization was his policies on commerce. He established roads that facilitated commerce with the western world after conquering Persia (Noble, 2008, p.96).

These roads were in existence before but inaccessible to the western world because they were under the control of the Persians. This monopoly diminished the chances of the western world of trading and conducting commerce with India, China, Bactria and many other countries that were famous for their trade acumen at that time.

The opening of these roads established trade between the west and these countries. This led to the introduction of precious metals and stones, jewelry and jade to the west (Noble, 2008, p.97). For example, Silk Road is one of the many roads that Alexander the Great opened to the western world. These roads exposed the west to other parts of the world.

Alexander combined his capacities as king and scholar to establish and develop his empires. In order to control the populations of the empires that he conquered, he adopted some of their traditions. This led to the establishment of an ideological king, a concept that ensured that the kingdom remained strong.

However, it split into three empires after his demise due to bad leadership (Noble, 2008, p.99). Alexander had a significant influence because of his brilliant thinking. He envisioned a massive empire that constituted many states under his control. In today’s context, the empire that Alexander built can be compared to the United States of America. His extraordinary ideas enabled him to conquer other empires and encompass them under his rule.

The spread of the Greek language to other parts of the world was due to the introduction of the Macedonian culture to the Persian Empire. The introduction of the Greek language led to its adoption in governing and ruling the empire. This encompassed many people under a common language and introduced the cultures, thoughts, ideas and beliefs of other empires (Spielvogel, 2011, p.96).

For example, the translation of the Old Testament in Greek introduced Christianity to the western world. The Old Testament was originally in Hebrew and was limited to people who understood that language. The translation was initially intended for Hebrews who had lived in other places for long periods, and therefore, unable to read in the Hebrew language. However, this brought the Jewish theology to other parts of the world.

This theology introduced the concept of monotheism that formed the basis of Christianity for the western world (Spielvogel, 2011, p.92). Alexander the Great influenced the establishment of religion in the west through popularizing the Greek language. The Greek language made the introduction of the New Testament possible and was phenomenal in promoting Christianity (Spielvogel, 2011, p.93).

The most influential change on western civilization was the concept of monotheism (Spielvogel, 2011, p.96). This was the basis for the founding of Christianity. It all started with the dispersion of Jews into different regions due to war and violence. Gradually, these immigrants led to the adoption of Greek as a common language. As a result, many Jews spoke Greek and started translating their literature into the Greek language. The most notable was the translation of the bible. In addition, the Hellenist world had monumental influence on the spread of Christianity to the west. For example, Paul was a Jew from Tarsus who incorporated some Hellenistic elements in his teaching. This made the teachings pleasant to many people who responded by embracing Christianity (Spielvogel, 2011, p.97).

Alexander introduced Hellenism and the Greek culture that were pivotal in the founding of the renaissance and the Enlightenment movements (Staufenberg, 2011, p.52). After his death, people became more knowledgeable than they were before his death. They became aware of the fact that the world was much larger than it was thought to be during Alexander’s reign.

Therefore, they explored more lands and travelled to many places. This marked the commencement of the modern world. History teaches that the modern world began with the renaissance because the Hellenistic period was partially responsible for civilization. This is because most of the advancements during the era of Alexander became obsolete as the empire crumbled after his death (Staufenberg, 2011, p.53).

During the middle ages, people wallowed in ignorance and retrogressed from the progress that was initiated by Alexander’s rule. Progress began again when the Turks took over Byzantium and when Christians began to migrate to Rome (Staufenberg, 2011, p.58). They introduced the culture and the civilization that was promoted by Alexander the Great.

Another aspect of Alexander’s rule that had a significant impact on western civilization was his economic policies. Alexander’s reign was highly influential to the economy of the Mediterranean basin. This resulted in enormous social and economic changes that had a positive effect on the west (Staufenberg, 2011, p.62).

These social and economic changes influenced other areas such as medicine and philosophy. For example, Alexandria was the center of medical research. Researchers learned how to carry out surgical operations and diagnose various diseases (Staufenberg, 2011, p.65). These medical advancements reached the west and formed a basis for their medical fields that are among the most advanced in the world today.

Under Alexander’s reign, there was immense spread of the Hellenistic civilization that made Greek the language that was used to conduct business. Under a common language, trade prospered and Alexandria became the center of trade. It was famous for the manufacture and importation of products.

The products that were produced by the Egyptians included silk, wine, cosmetics, cloth, salt, glass, beer and paper (Staufenberg, 2011, p.72). In the western parts of Asia, common products included asphalt, carpets, petroleum, drugs and woolens. The effect of trade on the involved regions was immense. During the years that followed the death of Alexander, the region of Judea became inhabited by Greek merchants and government officials.

Gradually, these new inhabitants began to “Hellenize” the original inhabitants of the region. In addition, there was dispersion and migration as violence erupted in different parts of the empire. As they moved to new places, they carried their civilization and brought about various changes in the culture of the inhabitants.

As a scholar, Alexander had strong interests in science, mathematics, geometry, arts and literature. It is difficult to determine in which of these fields Alexander had the greatest influence on the western civilization. The artwork created by the great artists of the Hellenistic era is similar to that of the renaissance artists that is common today (Spielvogel, 2011, p.103).

This implies that the Hellenistic period influenced the work of artists that lived during the renaissance period. For example, today’s cities are designed using a grid plan that was developed by Hippodamus of Miletus (Spielvogel, 2011, p.106).

In addition, the geometry developed by Archimedes is used in the building and construction industry. Literature from the era is still available today, and the fields of history and chronology were established during the same era (Spielvogel, 2011, p.108). All these aspects of the Hellenistic period were vital in developing the western civilization. The development of these aspects was made possible by the rule of Alexander the Great, and the western world owes its civilization to him.

Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon) was an ancient Greek ruler in the state of Macedon. He assumed the throne after the assassination of his father, Philip II of Macedon in 336 BC. A strong army and a well-established kingdom were some of the reasons why he became so influential.

In his many capacities as an army commander, politician, king, explorer and a scholar, Alexander used several strategies to expand his empire that included people from different ethnic backgrounds. The most influential change on western civilization was the concept of monotheism. This was the basis for the founding of Christianity.

He had a significant influence on western civilization mainly because he introduced the Greek language and science to the new empires that he conquered as he tried to expand his empire. He influenced western civilization through art, literature, science and geometry.

These aspects were critical in developing the western civilization. He had immense influence on western civilization mainly because he introduced the Greek language, science and culture to the new empires that he conquered in an effort to expand his empire. Alexander the Great had significant influence on western civilization, and the western world owes its civilization to him.

Cummings, L. (2004). Alexander the Great . New York: Grove Press.

Noble, T. 92008). Western Civilization: Beyond Boundaries . Stamford, Connecticut: Cengage Learning.

Spielvogel, J. (2011). Western Civilization . Stamford, Connecticut: Cengage Learning.

Staufenberg, G. (2011). Building Blocks of Western Civilization . New York: Xlibris Corporation.

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Analysis of The Leadership of Alexander The Great

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Alexander The Great as One of The Greatest Military Leaders of The Time

An attempt to expose the image of alexander the great, the life and reign of alexander the great and charlemagne, the era of alexander and the start of the hellenistic period, the story of legendary alexander iii of macedonia, the military achievements and personal life of alexender the great, wars of alexander the great: battle of the hydaspes river, comparison between alexander the great and julius caesar, consequences of the hellenistic period.

20 or 21 July 356 BC

10 or 11 June 323 BC (aged 32)

Philip II of Macedon

The ancient kingdom of Macedonia

Alexander III, Alexander of Macedonia

Alexander was the son of Philip II of Macedonia and Olympias. He was taught by the Greek philosopher Aristotle from the age of 13 to 16. Aristotle inspired young Alexander's interests in philosophy, medicine, and scientific investigation.

Alexander the Great was a king of ancient Macedonia and changed the course of history. He established the largest empire the ancient world had ever seen that stretched from Macedonia to Egypt and from Greece to part of India. Alexander III was one of the greatest military leader of antiquity.

His death is still a mystery. Alexander the Great died in Babylon, he became ill after a prolonged banquet. The most popular theories claim that he was poisoned or that he died of environmental causes such as malaria, lung infection.

“I am indebted to my father for living, but to my teacher for living well." “There is nothing impossible to him who will try.” “I am not afraid of an army of lions led by a sheep; I am afraid of an army of sheep led by a lion.” “When we give someone our time, we actually give a portion of our life that we will never take back.”

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research paper on alexander the great

Ancient tomb really does hold Alexander the Great's father, controversial study claims

Researchers used X-ray analyses to determine the occupants inside a trio of royal tombs in Greece.

Sculpture of Alexander the Great

Archaeologists may have finally identified the remains of Alexander the Great's father, half-brother and son in a trio of tombs at a necropolis in Greece. 

Researchers have long debated which members of the Macedonian royal family were buried in each tomb. Now, a controversial new review suggests that researchers previously got the tombs mixed up and claim they have identified the actual occupants of each tomb.

Known as the "Great Tumulus," the burial site in Aegae, the original Macedonian capital (modern-day Vergina, a town in northern Greece), contains three tombs that were built during the fourth century B.C., according to a review published in the December 2023 issue of the Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports .

Researchers initially discovered the tomb complex in the 1970s and proposed that the crypts, known as Tombs I, II and III, contained the remains of several royals who were closely related to Alexander the Great , the Macedonian leader who reigned from 336 B.C. until his death in 323 B.C. Those individuals included Alexander the Great's father, King Philip II; his son, Alexander IV, whom he had with his wife Roxana; and his older half-brother, King Philip III Arrhidaeus.

However, there's been ongoing debate about which royal is interred in each tomb. 

Related: 2nd-century Alexander the Great's tomb with lion's-mane hairstyle unearthed in Turkey

To determine the identities of the skeletons, the archaeologists behind the new review looked at ancient writings about each individual, including any injuries or skeletal anomalies that could help identify them, and compared these to X-rays of each skeleton.

"It was like a fascinating detective's ancient story," review lead author Antonios Bartsiokas , professor emeritus of anthropology and paleoanthropology at the Democritus University of Thrace in Greece, told Live Science in an email. 

Bartsiokas and colleagues identified King Philip II as the occupant of Tomb I based on the male skeleton's fused knee joint. The injury was "consistent with the historic evidence of the lameness of King Philip II," according to the review. He was buried alongside one of his wives, Queen Cleopatra, and their newborn child, the researchers suggested.

"This was the only newborn in the Macedonian dynasty to have died shortly after it was born," Bartsiokas said. "The age of the female skeleton at 18 years old was determined based on the epiphyseal lines [which show when the bone stopped growing] of her humerus. [This number] coincides with the age of Cleopatra from the ancient sources."

However, experts have long argued that King Philip II was actually buried in Tomb II, and not in Tomb I as the review concluded. 

Because no physical trauma was found on the male skeleton in Tomb II, the new review concluded that he was King Philip III Arrhidaeus, who ruled Macedonia following Alexander the Great’s death. He was buried with his wife, Adea Eurydice, a "warrior woman who was leader of the army," Bartsiokas said. Her skeleton was surrounded by several pieces of weaponry, according to the review.

"His skeletal evidence and the pattern of his cremated bones have been shown to be consistent with the circumstances of the death of King Arrhidaeus and his wife," Bartsiokas said. "Tomb I was a very small and poor tomb and Tomb II was very big and rich. This ties with the historical evidence that Macedonia was in a state of bankruptcy when Alexander started his campaign and very rich when he died. This is consistent with Tomb I belonging to Philip II and Tomb II belonging to his son Arrhidaeus."

Moreover, the skeleton in Tomb II didn't have a tell-tale sign that has been associated with Philip II: an eye injury. Previous studies determined that the male skull in Tomb II showed a traumatic injury on the right side of the skull, but those claims have been refuted in several studies, including in this new review. 

"Philip II is known from ancient sources to have suffered an eye injury that blinded him," Bartsiokas said. "I was surprised to find [the] absence of such an eye injury in the male skeleton of Tomb II, which was initially widely described as a real injury that identified Philip II. In other words, this was a case of a description of a morphologic feature that did not exist."

This detail also helped the researchers determine that Tomb II didn’t house Philip II’s remains. Of note, the part of the skull that would have held the eye injury in Tomb I was not preserved.

Lastly, researchers identified the occupant of Tomb III as Alexander IV, Alexander the Great's teenage son who was killed in a power struggle following his father's death — a conclusion that "most scholars agree" upon, the authors wrote in the review.

Ian Worthington , a professor of ancient history at Macquarie University in Sydney who was not involved in the review, told Live Science in an email that the "fascinating" review contained "rich analysis of forensic examinations and some historical context and mention of opposing views," but that he still thinks Philip II was buried in Tomb II.

"Among other things, crucially, is that the two chambers of Tomb II were built at different times, whereas the burial of Philip III and Eurydice was a planned double one, meaning the construction of both tombs should be contemporaneous," Worthington said. 

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Worthington also concluded that there is evidence of eye trauma in the skull fragments. 

"There is also the significant issue of the trauma around the right eye of the skull from Tomb II, which is consistent with the wound that Philip suffered at Methone in 354 [B.C.] when a bolt from the ramparts struck him in the eye," Worthington said. "Even the undecorated walls of the tomb (in contrast to Tomb I) lean toward Philip II being the occupant, as we know that his son and successor Alexander III [had] to bury his father quickly to deal with a revolt of the Greeks and conduct a purge against opponents. Alexander planned to revisit the tomb and make it one to rival the pyramids, but he never did."

Bartsiokas, however, disagreed, saying that while Tomb II has undecorated walls, it has an elaborate facade on its front wall, an impressive antechamber and dual cremated burials, all of which would have taken a while to complete and making it a good candidate for being the tomb for Alexander's half-brother and sister-in-law. He also took issue with the idea that Tomb II had chambers built at different times, as previous research showed that "the remnants of the pyre were found on the roof of both chambers of Tomb II," he told Live Science in an email.

Worthington added that while we will likely not know for sure who the occupants are, Philip II is the most likely candidate. "Ultimately, no identification of the deceased in Tomb II can ever be 100% compelling in light of present evidence, analysis and reasoned historical argument, but on balance, the tomb is most likely that of Macedonia's greatest king, Philip II."

Editor's note: Updated at 12:33 p.m. EST on Feb. 15 to include an additional quote from Antonis Bartsiokas.

Editor's note: Updated at 4:39 p.m. EST to note that the skull in Tomb I did not preserve the portion that would have held the eye injury.

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Jennifer Nalewicki

Jennifer Nalewicki is a Salt Lake City-based journalist whose work has been featured in The New York Times, Smithsonian Magazine, Scientific American, Popular Mechanics and more. She covers several science topics from planet Earth to paleontology and archaeology to health and culture. Prior to freelancing, Jennifer held an Editor role at Time Inc. Jennifer has a bachelor's degree in Journalism from The University of Texas at Austin.

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Buck Braithwaite as Alexander in Alexander: The Making of a God

Alexander the Great Netflix show labelled ‘extremely poor-quality fiction’ by Greek minister

Depiction of a romantic relationship between king and his general in Alexander: The Making of a God sparks furore

Greece’s minister for culture has criticised a Netflix drama-documentary about Alexander the Great as “extremely poor-quality fiction” and “low content, rife with historical inaccuracies.”

Lina Mendoni’s comments about Alexander: The Making of a God come amid a furore over the show’s depiction of a romantic relationship between Alexander the Great and his confidant and friend Hephaestion. In Greece, an opinion piece in Eleftheros Typos called the show “a distortion of the truth” and blamed Oliver Stone’s 2004 film Alexander for starting “a propaganda campaign about Alexander’s homosexuality”.

Dimitris Natsiou, the president of the Christian Orthodox, far-right political party Niki, called the series “deplorable, unacceptable and unhistorical” and said it aimed to “subliminally convey the notion that homosexuality was acceptable in ancient times, an element that has no basis”.

Asked in parliament about the show by Natsiou, Mendoni said it was “replete with historical inaccuracies, demonstrates the director’s sloppiness and poverty of scenario”.

On the show’s depiction of the relationship between Alexander and Hephaestion, Mendoni said: “There is no mention in the sources that it goes beyond the limits of friendship, as defined by Aristotle.

“But you will know that the concept of love in antiquity is broad and multidimensional. We cannot interpret either practices or persons who acted 2,300 years ago by our own measures, our own norms and assumptions. Alexander the Great, for 2,300 years, has never needed, nor does he need now, the intervention of any unsolicited protector of his historical memory or, even more, of his personality and moral standing.”

When Natsiou asked whether the government would take action against Netflix, Mendoni said such a move would be unconstitutional. Greece’s constitution has protected freedom of art since the early 19th century.

“The ministry of culture does not exercise censorship, does not carry out actions that result in prosecution or ban, does not manipulate, does not limit, does not control the dissemination of information and ideas neither preventively nor repressively,” Mendoni said.

“The inspiration of artists, personal interpretation, and the judgment of individuals cannot, evidently, be subjected to a regulatory regime and control, nor can it be governed by the courts or dragged into them. Instead, it is assessed and judged by each of us, by the international community. This is how Netflix is also evaluated.”

The nature of the relationship between the Macedonian king and his general has long been speculated on. What is not debated is that Alexander and Hephaestion were intimate friends from childhood, and were often likened to Achilles and Patroclus by their contemporaries.

“Same-sex relationships were quite the norm throughout the Greek world,” Prof Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones, of Cardiff University in Wales, says in the first episode of Alexander: The Making of a God. “The Greeks did not have a word for homosexuality, or to be gay. It just wasn’t in their vocabulary whatsoever. There was just being sexual.”

The controversy mirrors a similar one in Egypt last year, when the Egyptian antiquities ministry published a lengthy statement criticising Netflix’s decision to cast a Black actor as Cleopatra in the drama-documentary Queen Cleopatra.

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Alexander the Great’s father located in Greek tomb after remains identified using X-ray analysis: study

Alexander the Great’s father’s remains have been identified in a Greek tomb using X-ray analysis, a new study says. 

The new international — yet controversial study — states that archaeologists previously had the wrong tomb identified in Vergina, Greece, as containing Alexander the Great’s father, Philip II of Macedon, according to Live Science. 

The site contains three 4th century B.C.E. tombs. 

The study was first published in the December issue of Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports.

ANCIENT TOMB MAY HAVE BELONGED TO A COURTESAN WITH ALEXANDER THE GREAT'S ARMY, ARCHAEOLOGISTS REVEAL  

Along with Alexander the Great’s father, Philip II of Macedon, the researchers said the three tombs also contain Alexander’s half-brother, King Philip III Arrhidaeus, and his teenage son, Alexander IV. 

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In ancient times , Vergina was Macedonia’s original capital, known as Aegae.

The archaeologists took x-rays of the skeletons in the tombs and compared them to detailed descriptions about the Macedonian royals, including height, weight, injuries and physical anomalies, according to Live Science. 

Alexander’s father’s remains were identified by a knee injury that was "consistent with the historic evidence of the lameness of King Philip II," the study said, according to Live Science.

He was located in what is known as Tomb I rather than Tomb II, which he had previously thought to have been in, according to the study.  

The Vergina site was first discovered in the 1970s, but debate has ensued about which royals were buried in each tomb. 

WHY ARE MEN OBSESSED WITH THE ROMAN EMPIRE? HISTORY EXPERT SAYS IT’S A ‘VERY AMERICAN THING’

Antonios Bartsiokas, the study’s lead author, told Live Science the research "was like a fascinating detective's ancient story," Bartsiokas is an anthropology and paleoanthropology professor at Democritus University of Thrace in Komotini, Greece.

The researchers located King Philip III Arrhidaeus, Alexander the Great’s half-brother and successor, in Tomb II. 

"His skeletal evidence and the pattern of his cremated bones have been shown to be consistent with the circumstances of the death of King Arrhidaeus and his wife," Bartsiokas said, according to Live Science. "Tomb I was a very small and poor tomb and Tomb II was very big and rich. This ties with the historical evidence that Macedonia was in a state of bankruptcy when Alexander started his campaign and very rich when he died. This is consistent with Tomb I belonging to Philip II and Tomb II belonging to his son Arrhidaeus."

Philip II is believed to be interred with his wife and baby.

Bartsiokas added, "This was the only newborn in the Macedonian dynasty to have died shortly after it was born. The age of the female skeleton at 18 years old was determined based on the epiphyseal lines of her humerus. [This number] coincides with the age of [his wife Queen] Cleopatra from the ancient sources."

He explained that the remains in Tomb II were also not found to have an eye injury as previously believed. Tomb I's remains could not definitely determine if there was an eye injury due to its deterioration.  

"Philip II is known from ancient sources to have suffered an eye injury that blinded him," Bartsiokas said, according to Live Science. "I was surprised to find [the] absence of such an eye injury in the male skeleton of Tomb II, which was initially widely described as a real injury that identified Philip II. In other words, this was a case of a description of a morphologic feature that did not exist."

Alexander IV was determined by the study to be in Tomb III. 

Original article source: Alexander the Great’s father located in Greek tomb after remains identified using X-ray analysis: study

Alexander Instructing his Soldiers, from The Deeds of Alexander the Great, 1608. Artist Antonio Tempesta. Heritage Art/Heritage Images via Getty Images

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    June 13, 323 bce, Babylon [near Al-Ḥillah, Iraq] Title / Office: king (336BC-323BC), Macedonia House / Dynasty: Argead dynasty Notable Family Members: spouse Roxana father Philip II mother Olympias See all related content → Recent News Feb. 20, 2024, 4:55 AM ET (The Guardian)

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    A king204. [2] Romm J. Ghost on the throne: the death of Alexander the Great and the war for crown and empire. New York, NY: Knopf; 2011. [3] Stoneman, R. (trans.). The Greek Alexander Romance...

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