Political Philosophy’s Methodological Moment and the Rise of Public Political Philosophy

  • Symposium: The State of Analytic Political Theory
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  • Published: 22 April 2022
  • Volume 59 , pages 129–139, ( 2022 )

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  • Jonathan Floyd 1  

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Political philosophy is having a methodological moment. Driven by long-standing frustrations at the fragmentation of our field, as well as recent urges to become more engaged with the ‘real’ world, there is now a boom in debates concerning the ‘true’ nature of our vocation. Yet how can this new work avoid simply recycling old rivalries under new labels? The key is to turn all this so-called methodological interest into a genuinely new programme of ‘methodology’, defined here as the careful identification and evaluation of all the different methods of reasoning available to us as political philosophers. This programme would clarify, for the first time, all the many ways in which we might argue with one another, thus making us less likely to talk past each another, and more likely to work fruitfully together.

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Introduction

A house divided cannot stand, but it can certainly argue. Egalitarians and libertarians in the kitchen, unable to agree on the division of labour for tonight’s family dinner. Democrats and liberals in the lounge, unable to agree on suitable viewing for tonight’s family television. Cosmopolitans and statists in the study, shutting their ears to such domestic squabbles, yet unable to agree on even the simplest boundaries in their own shared space, especially since being told by their employers to ‘work from home’, wherever that might be. And these are just the friendly rivalries — siblings operating on a shared floor, and with more in common than they like to admit.

In the rest of the house things really fall apart, with distant mutterings and slammed doors a now familiar but staccato backing track to our theoretical life, echoing at times the polarised politics of the wider world outside. This is the hum and buzz of realists in the basement, sticking to the foundations, and moralists in the attic, reaching for the sky; of continentals in the bedrooms, artfully putting on their make-up, and analytics in the bathroom, vigorously scrubbing it all away; but also the rest of us, doing as best we can in those liminal zones of landing, hallway, and stairs. For us, it’s the subtle art of blending approaches without antagonising peer-reviewers, as feminists, multiculturalists, critical theorists, and every ism-less hybrid in between, sometimes tilting to facts and sometimes principles, sometimes contexts and sometimes universals, sometimes thinking historically and sometimes globally. Such open-plan working can be a grind, of course, but it’s not the harshest fate on offer. Being evicted would be much worse; not being admitted in the first place the worst of all.

Imagine then what would happen if, one day, an outsider came to political philosophy’s front door for the first time, hearing the hubbub within, as they take the steps up the porch, and hoping to learn something — as we all do in this collection — of the ‘state of the art’ that produces it. What would they make of it all? What would they make of us ? And would they, somehow, see method in our madness? Perhaps so, if they glimpsed some overarching goal that is well served by such creative pluralism, animating the house from the outside though we do not always see it within, or if they saw a family that is slowly coming together rather than painfully growing apart, or if they saw us as helpful neighbours, with valuable skills for those around us. Yet they might see something else, if they looked a little less kindly and a little more honestly. They might see, in truth, that there are really multiple methods at play here. This is because, deep down, our house is one in which we talk past each other because we talk in different ways. Or, put differently, one in which at least some of the rivalries and misunderstandings that bedevil us stem not from irreconcilable aims, but from unspoken disagreements over the forms of reasoning we use to pursue them.

Let us call this view, from now on, the methodological explanation of our current plight, and let us note, straight away, that although it is a less optimistic view than the three more charitable interpretations mooted, it does have one signal advantage over all of them, which is that, instead of just wishful thinking, it suggests a timely and potentially rich programme of scholarship: a programme of methodology in political philosophy, understood here as the judicious identification, analysis, and evaluation of all the various methods of argument available to political philosophers.

This work is timely, in part, because of the noted fragmentation of our house, but also something more recent, as well as more distinctive of the current zeitgeist: the methodological moment political philosophy now finds itself in, as produced by the cumulative work of a wide range of scholars, all of whom have become deeply engaged with questions regarding the overall nature and purposes of our discipline. From ideal versus nonideal theory (Hamlin & Stemplowska, 2012 ; Erman & Möller, 2022 ), to moralism versus realism (Rossi & Sleat, 2014 ; Rossi, 2019 ), to transcendental versus comparative theory (Sen, 2009 ), all the way through to ‘political’ political theory (Waldron, 2016 ), our subject has never been more preoccupied than it is right now with general questions of orientation, as well as more precise questions concerning, say, fact-independence (Ronzoni & Valentini, 2008 ), practice-dependence (Sangiovanni, 2008 ), action-guidance (Valentini, 2012 ), and the gap between perfect utopias (Estlund, 2019 ) and real contexts (Modood & Thompson, 2018 ). Footnote 1 So, we are divided, sure, but not dumbstruck; lacking harmony, undoubtedly, but not noise. What we have on our hands is an impasse, but also an opportunity: to gather up these new ideas, to organise them into a new field of enquiry, and then to use that field, with a bit of luck, to change the way we currently talk both to and past one another.

This, at least, is the hope of the programme of methodology proposed here, and it can only be a hope for now, given how many new and previously unasked questions it gives us. These include how many methods our subject really has, when they are helpful, and how they differ from those found in moral philosophy and political science. They include whether we should really be labelling, as ‘methods’, such diverse items as realism, contextualism, data-mining, conceptual analysis, reflective equilibrium, and normative behaviourism (Perez, 2020 ). And they include, on the back of these initial enquiries, where exactly philosophical reasoning diverges from political rhetoric. For example, if a philosopher deploys a moving thought experiment about a child drowning in a pond (Singer, 1972 ), whilst a politician recounts the parable of the Good Samaritan (Spencer, 2017 ), what precisely is the difference? Or, from a different angle, if a philosopher makes their case for socialism by telling a folksy story about how we would or should behave on a camping trip (Cohen, 2009 ), is that not emotive analogical rhetoric, just as much as it is clever analogical reasoning? And indeed, if that same scholar entitles their book with what we’d normally call a ‘rhetorical’ question — ‘If you’re an egalitarian, how come you’re so rich?’ (Cohen,  2021 ) — is that not, again, a sign that the line between cold-blooded philosophy and hot-blooded politics is less clear than we might hope? We might decide here, of course, that there is a degree of acceptable overlap, but also that some methods are just too manipulative for sober prose, though fine for catchy book titles, yet either way, we first need to know exactly what these methods are and how they work. That is, we first need to do the methodology .

There is though something of a paradox here, or at least a little irony, bearing in mind that one of the driving forces behind this recent methodological moment, as witnessed in the literature just noted, has been an urge to make our subject more practical . How exactly does that urge square with the claim made here that we should now turn, at least initially, to the kind of meta -theory often thought of as indulgent navel-gazing? The truth is that this is unavoidable. We simply cannot rush, in the name of rights or racism, let alone relevance, from contemplation to coercion — not if we want there to be any cogency to it, let alone consent. First, we get our house in order and then, maybe, we think about ordering others. Methodology is a pre-requisite, not a panacea: a first, not a final stage, for those with wider political ambitions. Or, put differently, it is a necessary though naturally insufficient step towards strongly ‘practical’ or ‘political’ political philosophy of the much-desired kind, setting the scene for world-shaping interventions without making them directly itself. And that is just fine. Its mission is simply to ease us away from the babble of our current House of Babel, and towards not just better conversations, but also better collaborations, including with those in the non-academic world beyond. If it manages that, it would be more than enough to be going on with. In the language of an earlier zeitgeist , it would be the kehre out of our current methodenstreit , giving us an exciting body of work for now and a significant one for the future.

The key task then, for the rest of this article, will be to show just some of this excitement, as a prelude to the full programme to come. This will be done in four stages. First, a careful mapping out of the methodological terrain that has so far only been illustrated via the issues mentioned. Second, a proposed framework for organising this terrain, building on previous work on the same front. Third, a return to the theme of practical urgency, and thus one of the most pressing issues mooted earlier, of how we can separate rhetoric from reason in our methods, particularly when contemplating the rise of what I will call here ‘public political philosophy’. Fourth, some consideration of the future of methodology, stressing that it will need diverse hands as well as open minds. Note though that at all times here the aim is simply to provide plausible yet provisional suggestions regarding how this new research field might be organised. This is crucial, because although we need common terms of reference, if we are to move forwards, we also need a degree of flexibility, if we are to avoid ultimately slipping back into the kind of polarisation and mutual misunderstandings that currently dog our discipline.

Methodology as a Subject Area

The suggestion here, then, is that political philosophy needs to seize our current methodological moment and turn it into proper methodology. This means, above all else, working up a new research agenda concerned with setting out the various tools at our disposal, and evaluating them in terms of what they might to do for us, whatever ends we have in mind. For example, what can we do, and not do, with thought experiments? How should we use facts, whether hard data or soft anecdotes, when pursuing principles, moral, political, or otherwise? How might we blend sociology, history, political science, moral psychology, anthropology, economics, and the burgeoning field of comparative political theory? And indeed, how can we do all this given that the issue is not just how we might use such materials in terms of the familiar tasks already being pursued in this ‘house’ we call political philosophy, but also how useful they might be when put to work in ‘real’ politics? Footnote 2

We might wonder, after all, if that latter kind of work requires the same tools, though used in different ways and with different blends, or whether it somehow involves its own methods, which again we would need to investigate, and indeed master, if we want to change the world in line with our cherished principles. We also might worry about the fact that working with people as they are, rather than as we idealise them, brings an opposing pair of risks. On the one hand, we can become unduly conservative, simply reaffirming the status quo. On the other, we can become unduly radical, thus banishing ourselves to those ivory towers we all claim to shun. So, again, we need to get our methods straight if we are to have any hope of encouraging the kinds of political intervention required of our various theories of, for example, justice, democracy, rights, and so on.

This means, initially, getting the concept of methodology straight, by dividing it into the following two levels of enquiry. First, at the level discussed so far, we need to work out, in broad terms, what our subject involves, and then work out, in careful detail, all the various tools at our disposal, from thought experiments, to historical expositions, to opinion surveys, and beyond. Second, at a level to come, we need to develop a rich body of arguments concerning these very issues. In other words, as this new field grows, it will become not just a case of one or more individuals trying to work out, idiosyncratically, the modes and methods of our subject, but also of groups of scholars engaging in concert with a growing body of scholarship on just these issues. That, after all, is just what we would expect of any established field in political philosophy, or indeed any coherent research programme, and we want the same here of methodology.

What though, exactly, would progress look like here, bearing in mind these two levels? Ideally, of course, it would involve convergence and consensus on an increasing number of issues: perhaps on the variety of available methods, if not their value, or perhaps on the need to tailor our methods for different audiences, if not quite on how to manage this. Yet what if this does not happen? What if, instead, things become more fractious and rivalrous than that, as we might suspect? If so, and our eristic tendencies continue to match our analytical ones, then there could still be hope on the horizon. We need not despair, or fear we are returning to the babble described above, just so long as these new camps are sedulously defended and developed, and become established and suitably refined positions (and ‘isms’) in their own right. If this happens, then no matter the differences between these camps, they will still provide, when taken together, a useful set of resources from which all can learn and borrow, as well as, crucially, a new and common language capable of facilitating those productive conversations and collaborations we long for. Disagreement, in other words, is fine, just so long as it is clear and constructive.

On this note, perhaps, it is worth recounting something Onora O’Neill once noted of a set of responses to Christine Korsgaard’s The Sources of Normativity . ‘Needless to say’, she writes, ‘no unanimity has been achieved [here], but a vigorous approach to a set of topics that are central for ethics has been proposed, explored, and criticised’ (O’Neill, 2010, xii). Well, of course, it was almost needless to say as much in an academic philosophical context, given our propensity to engage with one another solely through critique, but even so, it is always worth remembering that there are different forms of critical disagreement that can develop over time in our profession, ranging from outright dismissal and rejection, at one end of the spectrum, to careful differentiation, and even more careful blending, on the other. The latter, crucially, is progressive, co-operative, and hopeful, without being dependent on everyone agreeing on everything. All it requires, at root, is contributors working up their positions in good faith, presenting them to others with transparency, and judiciously refining and developing them as new alternatives and objections come along. This, again, should be our ambition with methodology.

One Possible Methodological Framework

Now, in order to encourage this ambition, rather than simply ‘calling’ for it, I want to propose an initial starting position regarding what political philosophy involves and how we might organise the methods at its disposal. Remember, this is just one viable view amongst several: a provisional offer for others to engage with. Nonetheless, the hope here, borrowing a distinction from Rawls, is that it helps us see the fruitfulness of the general concept of methodology described, however much we disagree over particular conceptions within it (Rawls, 1971). If scholars learn from it, use it, borrow from it, improve it, or develop alternatives that they believe avoid errors within it, then that’s all to the good. Methodology in political philosophy — and this is crucial — only has to be useful in the way that a DIY shop is useful. It does not matter whether we all buy identical tools for identical houses; all that matters is that methodologists set these tools out on display, as clearly as possible, and with appropriate advice on what they are good for, so that others can find, choose, and use them as best they see fit.

Here then is just one possible theory of future methodology in political philosophy, a theory that echoes many in the long tradition of Western political thought by having three key parts to it: (1) a general framework for our subject matter; (2) a set of three tasks serving that framework; and (3) a range of methods applicable to those tasks. These run as follows.

First, the general framework which holds that political philosophy should be defined not in terms of ideals , such as justice or legitimacy, or institutions , such as the state or government, but rather in terms of a question : ‘how should we live?’ This is an argument developed at length elsewhere (Floyd, 2011 ; Floyd, 2017A ), but the key rationale for it is simple enough. In contrast to ideal-based or institution-based definitions, this question-based approach is both inclusive and exclusive to just the right degree: inclusive given that it can accommodate, say, libertarian and egalitarian work, or statist and cosmopolitan positions, without difficulty; exclusive given that it can be helpfully separated from equivalent questions for both the moral philosopher — ‘how should I live?’ — and the social scientist — ‘how do we live?’ As a result, with this framework in hand, we nudge the disciplinary dial away from competition and towards cooperation, making the domestic babble described above just a little less likely. And, at the same time, we delineate a subject, not just in which existing scholars can find a comfortable home, but also one to which outsiders can be warmly invited, knowing that they are visiting somewhere that is usefully distinct from other academic houses in the neighbourhood.

Next, then, we have the idea that political philosophy can be divided into three distinct tasks, building again on a position developed elsewhere (Floyd, 2019 ). These three are analysis , critique , and ordering , with each working roughly as follows. Analysis, first, involves isolating and illuminating whichever concepts interest us when thinking about how we should live, including values such as freedom and equality. This maps out for us our basic working material. Critique, second, subjects those values to various objections, each of which might affect our willingness to promote them in the real world. This tests our working material, giving us a good initial sense of what it can and cannot handle. And then comes ordering. This third task involves drawing on the materials provided by analysis and critique in order to generate precise sets of political principles capable of guiding our concrete political preferences. Footnote 3 Here, then, we aim to order our ideas in order to shape our political orders. All of which, when taken together, gives us three distinct tasks that are not just important, but also mutually compatible . Analysis, clearly enough, serves critique, which in turn serves ordering, though each can be pursued in isolation, depending on our interests, as well as the faith we have in our assumptions concerning the contents of the others. And this is crucial, bearing in mind our wider aims here. As with the general framework, it again encourages cooperation over conflict, because again it allows various projects in our subject to live alongside one another without the need to declare themselves the one true faith.

Finally, then, we have the claim that each task suits a different set of methods. Critique, for instance, can involve a charge of what we might call ‘problematic implications’, whereby a given idea has dangerous consequences, or a charge of ‘inconsistency’, whereby a given position has incompatible elements within it. Isaiah Berlin’s critique of positive liberty (Berlin, 1969 ), for example, is a case of the first, whilst Charles Taylor’s later critique of Berlin’s position (Taylor, 1979 ) is a case of the second. Similarly, ordering might involve a method of testing political principles against ‘considered judgements’ (Gaus, 2010 , 174; Floyd, 2017a , 131–138), or perhaps our more abstract ‘intuitions’ (Appiah, 2008 ; Floyd, 2017a , 138–153) or perhaps a combination of both via ‘reflective equilibrium’ (Rawls, 1971; Daniels, 1979 ; Floyd, 2017b ). It might even involve, looking at more recent scholarship, a new method of testing principles for real-world suitability proposed by De-Shalit under the label of ‘public reflective equilibrium’ (de Shalit, 2020 ; cf. Wolff, 2020 ). Again though, there are all options . Each of these methods, and others, can be experimented with, and each scrutinised by methodologists. We do not say here, then, that this or that is the perfect or comprehensive method. We say simply that, with political philosophy framed as an open-ended question, and divided into a friendly division of labour, let us try and look at all such methods with a little more freedom, fairness, and focus, than they normally receive, given that we are no longer trying to bundle them up with any one substantive position, from egalitarianism, to libertarianism, to communitarianism, and beyond.

So, once more, the conception offered here frames our subject in terms of the following: (1) a question; (2) a set of tasks serving that question; and (3) a range of methods serving those tasks. As a result, it maps out a terrain that we had previously only guessed or gestured at, relying on the knack and judgement of experience, or the examples provided by those we considered experts in our field. Now, by contrast, we can go well beyond such things. Building on the promise of this new field, we will soon identify and explore both smaller and larger features of our work than had been properly considered before.

We might, for example, start to give proper scrutiny to what often seems, rightly or wrongly, some kind of ‘master’ method in political philosophy, and indeed in much of academic enquiry beyond our borders: the method of arguing for our own position by arguing against the position of others. This is something, intriguingly, that Mill touches on in On Liberty , when approvingly quoting Cicero’s remark that three quarters of all arguments in moral, civil, and political matters are ultimately arguments against the alternatives and objections to our own case (Mill, 1989 , 30). It is also something, equally intriguingly, that we typically adhere to without comment in most of our books and articles, not to mention the ‘literature review’ sections of most doctoral theses. Clearly, we instantiate it every day via norms of peer review, just as legal systems channel it with trials by jury. Yet what exactly does this mostly adversarial practice involve? What assumptions does it rest upon? And can it ultimately be justified without relying on itself? Perhaps, for example, this multi-purpose tool relies upon a deeper notion of expert ‘judgement’, whereby rejecting the ‘best’ positions on a given topic, such as justice, whilst our own view remains intact, gives the latter some kind of halo effect Footnote 4 ? Or might it rest on ‘falsification’, borrowing from Popper, with progress in our field coming, not from proving new theories, but from steadily falsifying old ones (Popper, 1963 )?

In any case, whatever the truth is of this method, or indeed the more particular ones practised under each task, and whatever the extent might be to which different methods can be used for more than one task, the key point remains that simply having a framework of the kind proposed, and looking carefully, as a result, at all these general and replicable forms of reasoning, outside of any substantive arguments over justice, rights, or legitimacy, can only be a good thing for our work. It leads to novel and potentially productive questions. It helps us get our thinking straight, so that communication, justification, and political applications are all enhanced. And it does this, crucially, even if we continue to disagree, not just about those substantive issues, but also the merits of each of these tools. All that really matters here, for most of us, is that we start to share a better collective understanding of the methods at our disposal; all that really matters, for the methodologist, is that their work supports this collective understanding. It is enough, for this new field, to identify and illuminate the tools at our collective disposal, without prescribing the end to which they should be put. If we can separate and display them, with clear labels and neat boundaries, our job is more than well done, without pre-empting the jobs of others.

Reason, Rhetoric, and the Hybrid Art of Public Political Philosophy

The argument so far has taken us from a general concept of methodology to a particular conception of how it should be organised. This opens up a range of fertile topics, including the aptness of that conception, but also, and more importantly, the details of the methods it illuminates. Of all these methods, however, one cluster in particular stands out as a useful illustration of the value of this new field: a cluster that I will refer to, from here on in, as the art of ‘public political philosophy’.

This art really matters to methodology, and for at least four reasons. First, because of the noted practical ambitions behind much of our subject’s recent methodological moment, from ideal vs. non-ideal theory, to moralism vs. realism, to ‘political’ political theory, and beyond (Floyd, 2010 ; Floyd, 2020 ). Second, because we clearly need to work at this art, not just in order to meet those ambitions, but also to meet the growing requirements of our funding bodies, most of whom now push ‘engagement’ or ‘impact’ as conditions of their various fellowships and audits (just as they once, notably, pushed ‘methods training’ Footnote 5 ). Third, and more importantly, because its workings remain unclear, despite being well illustrated, in recent times, by charismatic scholars such as Anthony Appiah, Martha Nussbaum, and Michael Sandel. Fourth, and most importantly of all, because it is not even clear, if we mastered such workings, what success on this front would actually look like.

We could, for example, just bow here to whatever the latest intellectual and institutional pressures are to be ‘relevant’, and then say that any method of argument is good if it serves that end. If so, ‘good’ public political philosophy could be measured in likes, views, re-tweets, and so on. Yet that cannot be right, given the principled demands of our various theories, and there are clearly pros and cons to different kinds of ‘relevance’. On the one hand, sure, getting things right could lead to a wider audience and better world, but getting them wrong could be disastrous. Superficiality, undue deference, excessive conservatism, unintended legitimisation, hollow virtue signalling, and the steady marginalisation of any topic without immediate practical ‘benefit’ — these are just some of the risks we incur when reaching out to the public via The Times , TedX , or TikTok .

Given these dangers, then, how might methodology get a handle on this art? Perhaps, as a first step, by looking critically at some of the language used in this very article. Consider, for example, the various analogies deployed so far, from houses to tools to DIY stores. Or consider, once more, Singer’s famous thought experiment involving a child drowning in a pond whom you could rescue if you chose, though it might cost you a suit, or at least a hefty dry-cleaning bill (Singer, 1972 ). What is going on with these analogies? As methods of argument, are they innocent illustrations or something more substantial? At root, do they function as thought experiments, allegories, case-studies, or something else? And, most importantly of all, do they help or harm our pursuit of a better world?

Clearly, knowing the answers to these questions would be a good start when it comes to understanding, and mastering, public political philosophy. It would help us begin to divide progressive techniques from those likely to backfire. It would help us separate short-term attention-grabbing from long-term cultural change, and thus ‘relevance’ from ‘significance’. And it would help us, in turn, draw a careful line between the wider mediums of philosophical reasoning and political rhetoric, meaning we could then better distinguish serious scholarship from the kind of cheap put-downs found in election campaign posters, in both our own arguments and the arguments of others.

This will not, however, be easy work, and not just because of institutional and political pressures to ‘cut through’ and ‘make a difference’, or indeed our own biases on particular causes, but also because of ingrained writing habits. How we write, who we write for, and the way in which we blend prose and polemic — these are all highly developed traditions involving a whole range of methods of reasoning. Consider, for example, that just as political philosophers use analogies ad nauseum to build their cases, they also use reductio ad absurdum to demolish their opponents’. Footnote 6 Like novelists, they depict utopias and dystopias for both critical and constructive purposes. Footnote 7 Like lawyers, they constantly argue against as a means of arguing for — as noted earlier. So, of course, the line between professional and polemical argument matters here, and yes, if we can get it right it will help us master public political philosophy to good effect, but it will not be a quick conceptual split. It is, instead, a serious, long-term methodological project, covering various methods and confronting various interests. Or, more analogically, it’s a project worth getting our teeth into, but hardly bite-size.

Again though, how we might start to move this work forward? Well, perhaps by taking just one plausible interpretation of the ‘logic’ of the analogies just discussed and then applying it to the problem at hand. That is, if we assume that analogical reasoning is something like reasoning from case-studies , with inferences drawn accordingly, what we could do here is study some of the better known instances of where public and philosophical argument cross paths in order to work out which methods best serve our purposes — and indeed in order to work out, as noted, just what our purposes should be here in the pursuit of ‘success’, ‘relevance’, ‘impact’, and so on. We might, for example, look at someone like Iris Murdoch, thinking about fiction and philosophy. In her case, novels serve as a unique space to explore ideas, as well as to share them far and wide. Or we might look at Cicero, as a philosopher, lawyer, and politician. In his case we find public political philosophy taken to the highest possible level, as well as reflections on the proper place of rhetoric in republics, though also an awkward caveat, at least for today’s professional theorists — the caveat that ‘true’ wisdom here requires considerable practical experience, especially when it comes to the merits of Romans over Greeks.

These cases, however, though clearly meriting future methodological scrutiny, are still not the best at hand for now. Instead, for our purposes, it would be better to look at contemporary political philosophers, working in our institutional and intellectual culture, and doing their best to blend what seem to be these rival imperatives of truth and power. On this front, several candidates come to mind, including those three mentioned earlier — Appiah, Nussbaum, and Sandel. Better still, though, would be three thinkers who have both stepped into the political realm and philosophically reflected upon that very step — Amartya Sen, Onora O’Neill, and Jonathan Wolff. With each of these cases, we can ask: What methods have they deployed? Have those methods led to them going too far or not far enough? And how might we combine the approaches they have both articulated and practised in order to master this hybrid art of ‘public political philosophy’?

Let’s detail each of these in turn, starting with Sen, whose theoretical work on utilitarianism, democracy, justice, and development, including collaborative efforts with Martha Nussbaum on the ‘capabilities’ approach, led famously to the United Nations’ Human Development Index (HDI) (Sen, 2001 ). More recently, he has also shed light on the jump from theory to practice by developing a ‘comparative’ approach to justice that focuses our attention, echoing Judith Shklar, more on immediate injustices than the pursuit of perfect utopias (Sen, 2009 ; Shklar, 1990). On this view, intriguingly, and building on his earlier work, eliminating dictatorship is more important than perfecting democracy, just as ending famines is more important than achieving equality. It is though for that earlier work that he is most widely known, leading not just to a Nobel Prize in economics, but also a National Humanities Medal from a President who was in turn occasionally described as a modern ‘philosopher-king’: Barack Obama. This medal, aptly, was awarded for the application of ‘philosophical thinking to questions of policy’. Footnote 8

Second, we have O’Neill, whose long-standing research on Kantian ethics informed not just pioneering theoretical arguments on ‘idealisation’ (O'Neill, 1987 ), in similar territory to Sen’s recent writings, but also public intellectual contributions on ‘trust’ (O'Neill, 2002 ), as well as a broad portfolio of policy work as a Member of the House of Lords. Footnote 9 This work ranged from banking reform to media regulation, and has taken place alongside both more traditional and more public-facing intellectual activity, including most recently on the ethical challenges of pandemics (Niker & Bhattacharya, 2021 ). It also consistently provided not just an expression of certain core philosophical skills, but also an expression of a particular view on public political philosophy, as articulated in her From Principles to Practice (O'Neill, 2018 ). On this view, the key role for the aspiring Cicero is not to try and dictate perfect policy, as if one had a captive or perfectly willing audience, but to produce careful yet accessible arguments, involving explicit principles and transparent inferences, so that democratic publics can make better, or at least more informed, decisions themselves.

All of which takes us to Wolff, whose early work on abstract theories of justice led not just to more ‘applied’ theoretical publications on the ideas of disability and disadvantage (Wolff, 2009 ), but also a rich body of work on various councils and committees, as well as, most recently of all, an illuminating distillation of how best to go about this activity in Ethics of Public Policy (Wolff, 2012 ). Here, drawing on policy-review experience across rail safety, drug reform, gambling controls, and more besides, Wolff follows O’Neill in advocating the careful presentation of arguments for and against different policy options, with meticulous and explicit reference to the principles involved, as well as cautious reflections on how attractive those principles might be, and where they might lead if left unchecked. He also shares an approach that encourages us to shed philosophical light on issues as and when they acquire political salience, regardless of whether they are academic hot-topics, which is why he too has commented on the ethics of pandemics and lockdowns, alongside more ‘traditional’ theorising. Footnote 10 Again then, there is a consistent focus here on enriching rather than controlling conversations, though that too, perhaps, is encouraged by political rather than academic fashions, if it is indeed true that polarisation has now supplanted apathy as the great danger of modern democracies. Footnote 11

Clearly, there is much to learn from these thinkers. Zooming in on their methods, we see them deploy, for example, conceptual analysis (of democracy, trust, risk, etc.), analogies to real and hypothetical examples (from Indian famines to imaginary train crashes), and the careful mapping out of inferences between principles and cases, verging at times on a public form of reflective equilibrium. Footnote 12 Zooming out, we see their explanations of why such methods are appropriate for public political philosophy, and in particular the principled limits that O’Neill and Wolff have set themselves in such work. As noted, these two prefer to explain the connections between theory and practice, or more precisely between principles and policies, without for the most part prescribing to their democratic audience. The dilemma is x , they tend to say; the choices y and z . Success, on this view, is measured in clarity, consciousness, and culture, not policy or popularity. The role of the public political philosopher is simply to illuminate options, enrich debates, nuance conversations, and indeed democratic deliberations, without having to pick sides, in the sense of strongly aligning oneself to any particular party or policy.

Is this approach, however, just a bit too timid ? Yes, it can look like wise and patient politics, but also convenient deference. After all, if these authors have the truth about banking, disability, gambling, and so on, should not they push a little harder? Should they not, perhaps, tell the public that this is what philosophy shows , or proves , even if not all philosophers agree with them? Maybe so, though presumably a key worry here is that such an approach could easily backfire, leading to less influence for them, and perhaps even intellectuals or ‘experts’ in general. Footnote 13 Nonetheless, there is also the danger here that just by taking part in debates, processes, and policy reviews, our illustrious political philosophers give weight to particular policy outcomes, even when expressing disagreement with them. Consider, for example, the case of Jeremy Waldron, as ‘Chichele chair of Social and Political Theory’ at Oxford, when commenting on the Leveson enquiry into media regulation in the UK. Footnote 14 Here, as with any contributor, it is easy to ‘note’ his contribution without addressing it, and thus easy to treat him as a ‘consultant’, or even a ‘co-author’, without having to take his view on board. And indeed, that becomes even easier the more scholars one involves, because when so many diverse voices are gathered up in such ‘enquiries’, there is little pressure on the enquiry chair to bow to any one of them, though every reason to boast, upon finishing such work, of all the great and the good whose thinking ‘informed’ the finished product.

This worry, then, about unintended collusion, is a serious one, and it leads in turn to a second — the worry that perhaps the real ‘methods’ that matter in this realm are not really to do, after all, with what is said, but rather how and by whom . Of course, we all wring our hands about how to square the philosophical imperative of truth with the public imperative of impact, but the reality might be, not just that easier influence sometimes comes from deviations from the truth, but also that it depends on the right form of delivery. We know full well, after all, that political triumphs often flow simply to those who are seen by their audience as the most competent or trustworthy voice on stage, regardless of the ‘real’ merits of their arguments on the issue at hand. Or, put differently, we know full well that, regardless of their methods , persuasive people persuade us, whether through objective credentials or personal charisma. Yes, it might also be true that, at least sometimes, charisma flows from the possession of a clear set of core principles, held with certainty and expressed with clarity, yet some people, it seems, just sound or look right to the audience at hand, whatever the quality of their mind-set. They speak the right way; make the right jokes; hold themselves in just the right posture; and so on and so forth.

What though, if anything, can those of us who are awkward philosophers do about this awkward fact? Presumably not very much, at least when it comes to changing it. Yet that does not mean we cannot work around it, and again, perhaps individual case-studies offer a way forward, especially when provided by thinkers who have come even closer to the front line of politics, without being the front man or woman themselves. Here, for example, we might look at William Galston’s work with Clinton, or Philip Pettit’s work with Zapatero, or Yael Tamir’s work in the 15th, 17th, and 19th Knessets. Or, better still for our purposes, we might look at Marc Stears, drawing on his time as Chief Speechwriter to Ed Miliband, the then Leader of the Opposition in British Politics. Footnote 15 Stears, notably, mirrors Galston in being an adherent to the ‘new realism’ in political theory, though how exactly that shapes his politics is unclear. What is clear is that his role here saw him combine, at one stage, (1) the latest political theory on ‘pre-distribution’ with (2) contemporary anxieties over the cost of living, into (3) a prize-winning speech that called for, amongst other things, an energy price cap. Footnote 16 As a result, his public-political-philosophical work provides a case-study, not just in combining abstract theory with pressing policy choices, but also the kind of rhetorical flair we presumably need if we are to be sufficiently persuasive.

So what exactly does this case tell us? Well, as with Anscombe and Cicero, there is obviously much that needs to be scrutinised here by future methodologists. And, as with Sen, O’Neill, and Wolff, there is obviously much to emulate. Clearly, Stears joins a long line of political philosophers, from Aristotle and Averroes to Mary Warnock and Bernard Williams, who have managed to alter, in various ways, the wider flows of public discourse. Nonetheless, for now, there is a much harsher lesson that needs to be taken on board by anyone hoping to find the right methods of public political philosophy. Out there in the ‘real world’, it took just one widely shared picture of Miliband ‘trying’ to eat a bacon sandwich to do more harm than any philosophical thought experiment ever could when it came to winning power for this new and principled policy-platform. Footnote 17 Out there, in the cut and thrust of ad hominem politics, it took just one clever campaign poster, involving a visual analogy of Miliband sitting ‘in the pocket’ of the Scottish National Party’s leader, Alex Salmond, to do more harm than any think-tank paper ever could on the merits of devolution, no matter how careful its conceptual analysis. Footnote 18 So, although it remains true that the public can be moved by informed debate, and that there are more and less dangerous ways of our trying to gain their attention, there is clearly no silver bullet for public-minded philosophers. Whether one likes it or not, messengers matter, not just messages; images matter, not just intellects. Naturally, the public like clear policies with clear rationales, but they like them most of all when offered by people they already find likeable.

All of which, then, seems to put us back in the quandary we started with. How can public political philosophers play with fire without getting burnt? How can they ‘do’ politics without sliding into petty point-scoring? And how can they shape public debate without presenting only our most populist ideas via our prettiest philosophers? Well, here is a cautious suggestion. Drawing on all these cases considered so far, perhaps the key point is that we should not forget what we do well in order to try and do everything. We should not, that is, become too ‘political’ (Waldron, 2016 ; cf. Finlayson, 2015 ), just as academia, in general, should not become too ‘activist’. This is because, if we stop being distinctively cautious and abstract, we lose our unique purpose, and indeed our claim to the resources and audience we already have , as opposed to those extra readers, listeners, and viewers we might reach for in the pursuit of ‘impact’. From Sen and O’Neill, to Wolff and Stears, the best cases of public political philosophy seem to suggest not just a handy quiver of methods worth borrowing, but also a careful remit worth following — a remit that helps us enhance debates, as well as the reputation of our subject, without adding to the forces of ‘polarisation’ and ‘post-truth’ already out there. Of course, we will always be tempted to exceed this remit, given the confidence of our convictions, and indeed the severity of the injustices that anger us, but we should hold fast, at least as long as we are presenting ourselves as analysts rather than actors. Failing to do so, as in the recent politics of Covid, would make us something like politicians pretending to be scientists, asserting judgements as truths when what we should be doing is explaining choices as trade-offs. Again, we cannot do everything , so should do well the thing that is both unique to us and valuable to others. This means illuminating options and arguing for them accordingly, knowing at all times that that final verdict is not for us , but for those in power, and indeed those who vote for them.

So, on the one hand, let us not try to control debates or pre-empt outcomes. That comes across as liberalism trying to end democracy, with populism kicking back harder, and intellectuals banished to the margins. On the other, let us not stoop so low as to simply tell people what they already think or hear. That again makes us irrelevant, and not now because we are ahead of our time, but because we are quickly outmoded. Regardless of our personal appeal, we should be Daedalus not Icarus; sweet-spot sages, or goldilocks gurus, practising the astute moderation of the Aristotelian mean. By all means, then, deploy the rhetorical methods of alliteration, contrastive pairs, and analogies found in the previous sentence, yet remember that even when well deployed, you might still go unheard, or heard and disagreed with, or even widely agreed with yet still on the losing side of the crucial vote or decision due to wider political dynamics. And why should that be otherwise? The public, after all, are long used to not getting what they want when their representatives have other ideas, whether on borders, taxation, or the death penalty. Philosophers should accept the same with equanimity, resisting the temptation to throw the baby out with the bathwater, and dropping precision or patience in the pursuit of perfect justice or legitimacy. So, no sulking or venting on Twitter, if possible, and no besmirching too quickly the abilities of voters or those they vote for, especially if you know, deep down, just as Plato knew, close up, that you do not want the reigns and responsibilities of power yourself.

Here then, in summary, are our two conclusions regarding methodological reflection on public political philosophy. First, that it is well practised when aimed at better public deliberation, as opposed to perfect political outcomes, and when deployed via particular methods that serve this end, including hypothetical and real analogies, the conceptual analysis of ‘hot’ topics, and the casuistry of mapping out implications between cases and principles. Second, and more broadly, that methodology here clearly matters , both in the sense of raising interesting questions and in the sense of helping us meet at least some of the practical ambitions of our recent methodological moment. And again, this is just the start . In the future, there will be new methods to consider, new cases to examine, and new risks and possibilities to map out. Would political philosophers, for example, have more impact if they worked humour into their thought experiments? Would they have more relevance if analysing the judgements of voters a little more, and the intuitions of philosophers a little less? Would they acquire more authority, or even charisma, if organised into committees and institutions, producing enquiries and reports as formal associations rather than as a free-wheeling diaspora of intellectuals? Footnote 19 Of course, there would be risks and trade-offs with each of these choices too, but that is not the point. The point is that they provide rich material for future methodology.

Where Next?

Over the coming years, methodology in political philosophy will need to develop carefully over the two ‘levels’ described earlier. That is, it will need new and refined proposals for how to organise and ‘conceptualise’ its subject matter, as well as new and refined analyses of all the many methods at our disposal, including those applicable to public political philosophy. This, in turn, will bring yet further issues and methods to light, but also, with a bit of luck, something else. In time, whilst establishing methodology as a new ‘room’ within our subject’s ‘house’ (perhaps a well-lit conservatory?), it will also, hopefully, start to change the atmosphere in the rest of the building. This is because, as we become a little wiser about the different ways in which we argue, we also become less likely to misunderstand or mistrust each other, and in turn more likely to widen and deepen our subject’s conversations.

We will though, clearly, need an attitude to match this ambition. Just as public political philosophers need to illuminate and offer, without insisting or berating, so do methodologists need to map and display, without dictating or demanding. Methodology quickly outruns its purposes, not just if it specifies what justice is, or what utopia looks like, but also if it stipulates too rigidly what our subject involves, or how many methods it contains. Provisionality, experimentalism, and fallibility are all key watchwords here. In the short run, they stop us closing ourselves off into babbling rivalries; in the long run, they open up new vistas. These will include, no doubt, some of the methods of argument discussed earlier, but also as yet unimagined. As with technology and politics, we should soon see here what Popper called radical conceptual innovation (Floyd, 2009 ), meaning that although we could guess at future work on, for example, the methodological uses of artificial intelligence, or the best forms of public political argument in the ‘multiverse’, we cannot predict it. And indeed, why would we want to? Uncertainty keeps subjects interesting and scholars curious. We can then happily leave the tracking of such developments to future historians, or perhaps another group altogether. Perhaps those future philosophers who have just been asked, as we have here, to reflect upon the latest ‘state of the art’ in this old subject of ours.

Several edited collections have further helped to produce this moment, including Leopold and Stears ( 2008 ); Floyd and Stears ( 2011 ); and Blau ( 2017 ).

For valuable early work on some of these issues, see e.g. Leopold and Stears ( 2008 ); Floyd and Stears ( 2011 ); Dowding ( 2016 ); and Blau ( 2017 ).

Ordering thus has a dual meaning here. First, we order our thoughts, in the sense of organising all those political ideas to which we are attracted. Second, we produce a clear prescription of political order, in the sense of generating principles against which both contemporary politics and future proposals can be measured.

On ‘judgement’, see for example the essays on John Dunn’s work gathered in (Bourke & Geuss, 2009 ). See also Rawls’ early work on the ambition of ‘explicating’ the judgements of competent judges, in e.g. (Rawls, 2013 )

Though with more success, on that front, in the empirical social sciences than was ever had in normative corners of the humanities, and it remains the case that most students and scholars of political theory/philosophy merely gesture at ‘methods’ talk in their essays, dissertations, and applications, without really knowing what is wanted of them. Supervisors are thus regularly asked: ‘Cannot I just say I’m going to be reading texts and arguing about them?’.

A ‘method’ which Raz once claimed was significant precisely because it lacked presuppositions (Raz, 1999 , 367).

On this note, Rorty once wrote of the importance of novelists like Dickens, given that they, more than theorists such as Marx, really bring home to people things like the ‘exploitation’ and ‘alienation’ of capitalism (Rorty, 1989 , xvi, 146–149).

https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/DCPD-201200095 .

For the details of this work, see here: https://members.parliament.uk/member/2441/career

See: https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2022/01/new-risk-social-contract-covid-ethics/621246/

For popular rather than philosophical commentary on this shift, see e.g. ( https://bpr.berkeley.edu/2019/04/13/the-positives-of-political-polarization/ ) or ( https://www.ft.com/content/5655ab7c-1152-414e-bd22-67acd06c5c51 )

Rawls’ distinction between three kinds of reflective equilibrium is interesting here, though it was never fully developed (Rawls, 2001 , 30–31).

O’Neill has written extensively on this issue, in terms of the decline in ‘trust’ in public life, as well as in response to misinterpretations of a remark once made by Michael Gove in the context of the 2016 ‘Brexit’ referendum. See e.g. http://whenexpertsdisagree.ucd.ie/trust-speaker-preview-onora-oneill/

For the details of Waldron’s statement, as well as the wider report to which it contributed, see here: https://discoverleveson.com/evidence/Witness_Statement_of_Professor_Jeremy_Waldron_redacted/11462/media

For a good example of how Galston can combine political experience with philosophical theory to reach non-academic audiences, see here: https://newbooksnetwork.com/political-rhetoric-and-political-experience-with-william-galston . For an extended treatment of Pettit and Zapatero’s work together, see (Martí & Pettit, 2012 ). For the details of Tamir’s work in government, see here: https://main.knesset.gov.il/en/MK/APPS/mk/mk-personal-details/697

This was first mocked, and later adopted, by the government of the day. For a useful overview, see: http://justice-everywhere.org/democracy/an-interview-with-marc-stears-beyond-the-ivory-tower-series/

See e.g. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/ed-miliband-bacon-sandwich_n_5bbe27b0e4b01470d0580898

See e.g. https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2015/mar/13/spin-it-to-win-it-what-does-that-miliband-salmond-poster-tell-us-about-the-battle-of-the-political-brands . Note also the effect of the same imagery on David Steel, a generation earlier: https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/uk-world-news/wife-of-david-steel-blames-tv-1094162

Just as methodology might get more attention, and thus resources, if organised into a ‘standing group’, ‘research network’, or even just an acronym, whether PPM (Political Philosophy Methodology?) or MPT (Methods in Political Theory?), which is why all three are now being pursued.

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Floyd, J. Political Philosophy’s Methodological Moment and the Rise of Public Political Philosophy. Soc 59 , 129–139 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12115-022-00710-2

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Research Topics & Ideas: Politics

100+ Politics-Related Research Ideas To Fast-Track Your Project

Political science research topics and ideas

Finding and choosing a strong research topic is the critical first step when it comes to crafting a high-quality dissertation or thesis. If you’ve landed on this post, chances are you’re looking for a politics-related research topic , but aren’t sure where to start. Here, we’ll explore a variety of politically-related research ideas across a range of disciplines, including political theory and philosophy, comparative politics, international relations, public administration and policy.

NB – This is just the start…

The topic ideation and evaluation process has multiple steps . In this post, we’ll kickstart the process by sharing some research topic ideas. This is the starting point, but to develop a well-defined research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , along with a well-justified plan of action to fill that gap.

If you’re new to the oftentimes perplexing world of research, or if this is your first time undertaking a formal academic research project, be sure to check out our free dissertation mini-course. Also, be sure to sign up for our free webinar that explores how to find a high-quality research topic from scratch.

Overview: Politics-Related Topics

  • Political theory and philosophy
  • Comparative politics
  • International relations
  • Public administration
  • Public policy
  • Examples of politics-related dissertations

Topics & Ideas: Political Theory

  • An analysis of the impact of feminism on political theory and the concept of citizenship in Saudi Arabia in the context of Vision 2030
  • A comparative study of the political philosophies of Marxism and liberalism and their influence on modern politics
  • An examination of how the Covid-19 pandemic affected the relationship between individual freedom and collective responsibility in political philosophy
  • A study of the impact of race and ethnicity on French political philosophy and the concept of justice
  • An exploration of the role of religion in political theory and its impact on secular democracy in the Middle East
  • A Review of Social contract theory, comparative analysis of the political philosophies of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau
  • A study of the concept of the common good in political philosophy and its relevance to the ongoing refugee crisis in Europe
  • An examination of the relationship between political power and the rule of law in developing African countries
  • A study of the impact of postmodernism on political theory and the concept of truth, a case study of the US
  • An exploration of the role of virtue in political philosophy and its impact on the assessment of moral character in political leaders

Research topic idea mega list

Topics & Ideas: Comparative Politics

  • A comparative study of different models of federalism and their impact on democratic governance: A case Study of South American federalist states
  • The impact of ethnic and religious diversity on political stability and democracy in developing countries, a review of literature from Africa
  • An analysis of the role of civil society in promoting democratic change in autocratic regimes: A case study in Sweden
  • A comparative examination of the impact of globalization on political institutions and processes in South America and Africa.
  • A study of the factors that contribute to successful democratization in authoritarian regimes, a review of the role of Elite-driven democratization
  • A comparison of the political and economic systems of China and India and their impact on social development
  • The impact of corruption on political institutions and democracy in South East Asia, a critical review
  • A comparative examination of the impact of majoritarian representation (winner-take-all) vs proportional representation on political representation and governance
  • An exploration of Multi-party systems in democratic countries and their impact on minority representation and policy-making.
  • A study of the factors that contribute to successful decentralization and regional autonomy, a case study of Spain

Research Topic Kickstarter - Need Help Finding A Research Topic?

Topics & Ideas: International Relations

  • A comparative analysis of the effectiveness of diplomacy and military force in resolving international conflicts in Central Africa.
  • The impact of globalization on the sovereignty of nation-states and the changing nature of international politics, a review of the role of Multinational Corporations
  • An examination of the role of international aid organizations in promoting peace, security, and development in the Middle East.
  • A study of the impact of economic interdependence on the likelihood of conflict in international relations: A critical review of weaponized interdependence
  • A comparative analysis of the foreign policies of the EU and the US and their impact on international stability in Africa
  • An exploration of the relationship between international human rights and national sovereignty during the Covid 19 pandemic
  • A study of the role of decentralized autonomous organizations (DAO)s in international politics and their impact on state behaviour
  • A comparative analysis of the effectiveness of international regimes in addressing global challenges such as climate change, arms control, and terrorism in Brazil
  • An examination of the impact of the rise of BRICS on the international system and global governance
  • A study of the role of ideology in shaping the foreign policies of states and the dynamics of international relations in the US

Free Webinar: How To Find A Dissertation Research Topic

Tops & Ideas: Public Administration

  • An analysis of the impact of digital technology on public administration and the delivery of public services in Estonia
  • A review of models of public-private partnerships and their impact on the delivery of public services in Ghana
  • An examination of the role of civil society organizations in monitoring and accountability of public administration in Papua New Guinea
  • A study of the impact of environmentalism as a political ideology on public administration and policy implementation in Germany
  • An exploration of the relationship between public administration and citizen engagement in the policy-making process, an exploration of gender identity concerns in schools
  • A comparative analysis of the efficiency and effectiveness of public administration, decentralisation and pay and employment reform in developing countries
  • A study of the role of collaborative leadership in public administration and its impact on organizational performance
  • A systematic review of the challenges and opportunities related to diversity and inclusion in police services
  • A study of the impact of corrupt public administration on economic development and regional growth in Eastern Europe
  • An exploration of the relationship between public administration and civil rights and liberties, including issues related to privacy and surveillance, a case study in South Korea

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Topics & Ideas: Public Policy

  • An analysis of the impacts of public policy on income inequality and poverty reduction in South Sudan
  • A comparative study of the effectiveness of legal and regulatory, economic and financial, and social and cultural instruments for addressing climate change in South Korea
  • An examination of the role of interest groups in shaping public policy and the policy-making process regarding land-use claims
  • A study of the impact of globalization on the development of public policies and programs for mitigating climate change in Singapore
  • An exploration of the relationship between public policy and social justice in tertiary education in the UAE
  • A comparative analysis of the impact of health policies for the management of diabetes on access to healthcare and health outcomes in developing countries
  • Exploring the role of evidence-based policymaking in the design and implementation of public policies for the management of invasive invertebrates in Australia
  • An examination of the challenges and opportunities of implementing educational dietary public policies in developing multicultural countries
  • A study of the impact of public policies on urbanization and urban development in rural Indonesia
  • An exploration of the role of media and public opinion in shaping public policy and the policy-making process in the transport industry of Malaysia

Examples: Politics Dissertations & Theses

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a politics-related research topic, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses to see how this all comes together.

Below, we’ve included a selection of research projects from various politics-related degree programs to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

  • We, the Righteous Few: Immoral Actions of Fellow Partisans are Judged as Less Possible (Varnam, 2020)
  • Civilizing the State: Civil Society and the Politics of Primary Public Health Care Provision in Urban Brazil (Gibson, 2012)
  • Political regimes and minority language policies: evidence from Taiwan and southeast Asia (Wu, 2021)
  • The Feminist Third Wave: Social Reproduction, Feminism as Class Struggle, and Contemporary Women’s Movements (Angulo, 2019)
  • The Politics of Immigration under Authoritarianism (Joo, 2019)
  • The politics of digital platforms: Sour Dictionary, activist subjectivities, and contemporary cultures of resistance (Okten, 2019)
  • Vote choice and support for diverse candidates on the Boston City Council At-Large (Dolcimascolo, 2022)
  • The city agenda: local governance and national influence in the policy agenda, 1900-2020 (Shannon, 2022)
  • Turf wars: who supported measures to criminalize homelessness in Austin, Texas? (Bompiedi, 2021)
  • Do BITs Cause Opposition Between Investor Rights and Environmental Protection? (Xiong, 2022)
  • Revealed corruption and electoral accountability in Brazil: How politicians anticipate voting behavior (Diaz, 2021)
  • Intersectional Solidarity: The Political Consequences of a Consciousness of Race, Gender and Sexuality (Crowder, 2020)
  • The Congressional Hispanic Caucus and the Coalitional Representation of Latinxs in the U.S. House of Representatives (Munoz, 2019)

Looking at these titles, you can probably pick up that the research topics here are quite specific and narrowly-focused , compared to the generic ones presented earlier. In other words, to create a top-notch research topic, you must be precise and target a specific context with specific variables of interest . In other words, you need to identify a clear, well-justified research gap.

Get 1:1 Help

If you’re still feeling a bit unsure about how to find a research topic for your dissertation or research project, check out our Topic Kickstarter service below.

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Department of philosophy.

PHIL 327: Topics in Political Philosophy

The Generic Catalog Description

This course will concentrate on a specific issue in political philosophy. Typical topics include civil disobedience, war and peace, theories of political revolution, theories of utopia, and punishment and criminal justice.

PHIL 327: Topics in Political Philosophy: Liberalism and Feminism (class is linked with Dr. Ingram's PHIL 480)

This course will examine the liberal and feminist traditions in contemporary social and political philosophy.  We will begin by considering the foundational liberal social contract theory of John Rawls.  We will then address the ways that feminists have incorporated and rejected liberal thought within their theories of justice and care.  The course will also address radical feminist approaches that question the dominant liberal rights-based framework.  We will consider issues such as distributive justice and the family, the gendered basis for care and caregiving, multiculturalism and feminism, and liberal versus radical feminist positions on pornography.  Readings for the course will draw from the Anglo-American tradition in philosophy, possibly including works by authors such as John Rawls, Susan Moller Okin, Martha Nussbaum, Eva Kittay, Catharine MacKinnon, and Shulamith Firestone.

PHIL 327: Topics in Political Philosophy: Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy

How should we, as social beings, live together?  This is the fundamental question of political philosophy.  This course will address this question directly.  Following the example of Plato, we will think about an Ideal Society.  Specifically, we will ask, given the knowledge and resources that we possess, what is the best form of society that we, in the United States today, might construct? 

Virtually everyone would agree as to the basic political structure of our ideal society.  It should be a democracy.  Democracy has proven itself to be a durable and contagious ideal.  The history of the past several centuries has witnessed a steady deepening of democracy to include all citizens of a society and a steady spread of democracy--at least as an ideal--throughout the world.

There may be agreement about political structure, at least in broad outline, but there is no agreement about that other fundamental feature of a society--its economic structure.  It is this disagreement that will be the focus of this course.  Should our economic structure remain capitalist?  If so, to what sort of capitalism should we aspire, a conservative free-market economy that gives keeps governmental intervention to a minimum, or a more liberal version that would, among other things, allow the government to regulate the economy more and significantly redistribute income and wealth.  Or should we aim for something more drastic.  Should we aim for a "green" economy that incorporates both capitalist and socialist structures.  Or should we try to move beyond capitalism altogether?  Does there exist an economically viable socialist alternative to capitalism, or has the socialist project been wholly discredited?  If an economically viable alternative to capitalism does exist, is it worth fighting for?

To clarify the issues, we will read three books and a set of articles, each representing a contending view: conservative, liberal, green and socialist.  The conservative position is represented by the most influential economist of the post-World-War-Two period, Milton Friedman. We will read his classic statement, which is still, as you will see, highly relevant. The liberal position is represented by several figures, the philosopher John Rawls, the British philosopher/political scientist, Brian Barry and the economist James Galbraith.  The green position will be represented by another classic text, E. F. Schumacher's Small is Beautiful.  The socialist position will be set out in David Schweickart’s After Capitalism. 

These readings will comprise the first two-thirds of the course.  During the last third the class will divide into four groups, each of which will draw up a blueprint for its own Ideal Society, based (at least loosely) on one of the above perspectives.  The course will culminate in a Great Debate, in which each group attempts to defend its vision against the alternatives.

PHIL 327: Topics in Political Philosophy: Globalization Ethics

Thomas Wren

In this course we will explore economic and cultural issues of globalization, with particular attention to their normative dimensions of economic and cultural issues such as nationalism, colonialism, immigration,  cultural identity, group rights, and related topics such as global ecology.

We will draw on a variety of sources, including videos as well as books and articles. We will begin the course with excerpts from classic works such as Aristotle's Politics , Rousseau's Social Contract , Immanuel Kant's Perpetual Pea ce, and perhaps Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels's Communist Manifesto .    We will then look at texts from contemporary authors such as John Rawls. Jurgen Habermas, Thomas Pogge, Iris young, and  Seyla Benhabib.  The readings will be supplemented with several videos about some of the disturbing by-products of globalization.

This class will meet with Dr. Ingram's graduate seminar (PHIL 480) for lectures and video presentations, though not for the scheduled discussion sessions. 

Philosophy 327: Critical Theory: Classical and Contemporary Readings

David Ingrim

The course will survey some of the major themes and thinkers associated with the Frankfurt School of critical social theory. Besides examining issues  - most notably the dialectic of enlightenment, the authoritarian personality, and the problem of technology - that preoccupied first-generation critical theorists  Herbert Marcuse, Theodor Adorno, and Max Horkheimer, we will also discuss problems of communicative intersubjectivity, moral development, and self-identity that have dominated the thought of second-generation critical theorist Jürgen Habermas. We will then examine a major contemporary work on globalization and global solidarity by one of Habermas’s former students, Hauke Brunkhorst.

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Political Science Research Topics

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Use our free Readability checker

Political science plays an important role in how we shape the world around us. It offers insight into governments, political systems, public policies, international relations, and more. This makes it a broad subject to explore. But it can also be challenging to find a captivating political science research topic. 

To make things easier, we’ve collected multiple political science research paper topics that suit any taste and need. We made a step further and divided these ideas into accessible categories. Choose the area you are most interested in and get ready to find a bunch of political science research topics in your domain.

But first things first, let’s figure out what politics is all about.

What Are Political Science Research Topics?

Politics is the study of governments, public policies, and political processes. It investigates how societies make decisions. Political science also examines how decisions affect people, both on a small scale, like a neighborhood, and on a global scale, like international relations.

Political science research paper topics can range widely within this discipline. Depending on your interests and goals, you could explore anything from voting behavior to gender equality in politics. You can also study global diplomatic relations, electoral systems, or the influence of media on political outcomes.

Characteristics of Good Political Science Research Paper Topics

Politics shapes our world in myriad ways. Every aspect of it bears relevance and offers a platform for thoughtful discourse, making it a fertile field for academic exploration.

However, good political science topics aren’t just about selecting a subject itself. Great ideas require elements of intrigue, relevance, and potential for in-depth examination, all while showcasing your input. So, what should you consider while choosing between different political research topics? Well, your passion and expertise are pivotal. Your topic should resonate with your interests and align with your academic focus.

Here's a brief overview of characteristics that make up engaging political science research topics:

  • Relevant and contemporary
  • Balanced in its scope
  • Well-documented and containing enough material
  • Interesting to you as well as your readers
  • Suitable for follow-up studies and/or additional research.

How to Choose a Political Science Research Topic?

Stumped about which political science topic to choose for your research paper? It's a common dilemma for many students. You shouldn’t just pick a theme. You must ensure that your topic sustains your interest, meets academic requirements, and resonates with your audience.

No need to stress, though! This blog is here to help you navigate these tricky waters. Our online essay writer team has shared these step-by-step guidelines to help you choose a successful topic for your political science paper:

  • Start with something you’re passionate about. Your enthusiasm and interest will animate the project and guide you to success.
  • Come up with an original idea that hasn’t been explored in depth before or is still relevant today.
  • Find something that’s timely and engaging to a wider audience. This should be something that people care about and are actively discussing.
  • Look for hidden connections, patterns, and solutions. Make sure your political science research topic is complex enough to ensure in-depth research.
  • Gather the necessary materials beforehand. Ensure availability of information before you begin analyzing your theme.

List of Political Science Research Topics

Before you plunge into our expertly compiled list, remember to double-check your instructor's guidelines. Aligning your choice with your course requirements is vital. Now, prepare to browse through the most captivating politics research topics that could be the launchpad for your future paper.

  • Understanding democracy: An evolving concept.
  • Rise of populism in 21st-century politics.
  • Climate change and global governance.
  • Role of United Nations: Effectiveness and criticisms.
  • Politics behind nuclear disarmament.
  • Influence of social media on political campaigns.
  • Immigration policies: A comparative study.
  • Human rights and foreign policy.
  • Impact of political instability on economic growth.
  • Cybersecurity in international relations.
  • Decoding political symbolism in public spaces.
  • Feminism and its political impact.
  • Role of youth in politics.
  • Is healthcare a political issue?
  • Examining political bias in media.

Easy Political Science Research Topics

While the field of political science can seem intricate, there are areas within it that are more accessible, yet equally intriguing. If you're new to the discipline or prefer less complex issues, this list of simple political science paper topics could be your go-to. Each topic is designed to offer an easy entry point into political science, but still, provide room for critical analysis .

  • Defining basic political ideologies: Liberalism, Conservatism, and Socialism.
  • How does voting work? An overview.
  • Impact of political cartoons on public opinion.
  • Presidential vs. parliamentary systems.
  • Role of lobby groups in shaping policy.
  • Political satire and its influence.
  • Environmental policy: Understanding basics.
  • What role does local government play?
  • Does every vote count in elections?
  • How accurate are public opinion polls?
  • Politics in sports.
  • Privacy rights in a digital era.
  • Gender representation in politics.
  • Patriotism vs. nationalism: Understanding the difference.
  • Role of celebrities in political campaigns.

Interesting Political Science Research Topics

Political science never falls short of captivating topics. With its dynamic nature and its intricate connection to real-world issues, there's always something noteworthy to explore. We've done our utmost to curate a list of topics in political science that will pique anyone’s curiosity:

  • Lessons from literature on dystopian governance.
  • The war on drugs policy.
  • What influence does propaganda have on contemporary governance?
  • How governing ideologies influence art.
  • Balancing national security with personal freedoms.
  • Importance of whistleblowers in democratic societies.
  • Rhetoric and reality behind political speeches.
  • Implications of artificial intelligence on governance.
  • Attainability of world peace: A critical perspective.
  • Dynamics of power in non-democratic systems.
  • Global pandemics and their effects on governance.
  • Competing for Mars: A new space race.
  • Impact of religion on governance.
  • Perspective on animal rights from a political viewpoint.
  • Food accessibility: Who decides who gets to eat what?

Good Topics for a Political Science Research Paper

Scoring points with your professor often comes down to choosing compelling and thought-provoking research paper ideas . The following list includes good political science research questions that are in tune with contemporary discourse. Each topic offers plenty of room to showcase your analytical skills and knowledge.

  • Evaluating e-democracy: Benefits and drawbacks.
  • How migration policies shape nations.
  • Media as a tool for political persuasion.
  • Political philosophy in science fiction literature.
  • Trade wars and global relations.
  • Is there a global shift towards autocracy?
  • Understanding diplomatic immunity: Rights and abuses.
  • Role of non-state actors in shaping international policy.
  • Rise of nationalism in globalized societies.
  • Impact of climate change on national security.
  • Examination of censorship laws across nations.
  • Can blockchain technology revolutionize voting systems?
  • Decoding political rhetoric in campaign promises.
  • Gender pay gap: A policy analysis.
  • Influence of economic inequality on social unrest.

Best Political Science Research Topics

We have curated an irresistible list of political science topics for a research paper. These ideas range from pressing international issues to more granular policy questions, all guaranteed to challenge your analytical skills.

  • Exploring causes and effects of global populism.
  • Transparency as a key to ethical political leadership.
  • Evaluating the role of social media censorship in political landscapes.
  • Influence of multiculturalism on policy development.
  • Unpacking the outcomes and justifications of military interventions.
  • Corruption's destructive role in democratic systems.
  • Merits and pitfalls of technocracy.
  • Interplay of bureaucracy and governance.
  • Pathways to address political polarization.
  • Effects of historical colonization on current government structures.
  • Role of extremism in shaping international relations.
  • How global climate commitments affect nations.
  • Using sanctions as a diplomatic tool.
  • Conflict resolution through international law.
  • Geopolitics in outer space exploration.

Current Research Topics in Political Science

Political science is a progressing field, so the problems you research will always be relevant. Our list of up-to-date topics of political science will help you make sure your paper is on point.

  • Artificial intelligence in global governance.
  • Global health governance in pandemics.
  • Impact of digital currencies on economies.
  • Changes in contemporary immigration attitudes.
  • Climate crisis' role in diplomatic dialogues.
  • Social movements and societal change.
  • Tech giants and information control.
  • Civil liberties in pandemic responses.
  • Gender disparities in political representation.
  • Decolonization trends in the 21st century.
  • Cyber warfare and national security.
  • Ethics of drone warfare.
  • Crypto-anarchy and state sovereignty.
  • Right-wing extremism in the digital age.
  • Power dynamics in international space law.

Political Science Research Topic Ideas for Students

Navigating politics can be overwhelming for students, given its broad nature and intersecting disciplines. With the right research topics for political science, however, this complexity transforms into an opportunity for a decent study. Our list of political science research topics ideas is designed with students in mind, focusing on engaging, relevant, and manageable themes.

Political Science Research Paper Topics for College Students

For college students, political science topics for research papers should strike a balance between complexity and approachability. With that in mind, here's a collection of college-level political topics to write about.

  • Leadership styles across governments.
  • Impact of gender roles in election campaigns.
  • Role of think tanks in shaping public opinion.
  • Studying historical revolutions and their aftermath.
  • Influence of socio-economic status on voting behavior.
  • Exploring ethical dilemmas in international relations.
  • Cultural diplomacy and its effectiveness.
  • Sovereignty disputes and their resolution.
  • Rise and implications of digital citizenship.
  • Evaluating meritocracy as a system of governance.
  • Role of peacekeeping operations in conflict resolution.
  • Comparing capitalist and socialist economies.
  • Decoding cyber diplomacy in the digital age.
  • Relationship between economic crises and political changes.
  • Minority rights in democratic societies.

Political Science Research Topics for University

When it comes to political topics to talk about in university, politics offers a variety of interesting options. Here's a list of captivating research ideas that are sure to get you top grades:

  • Political revolutions in the digital age.
  • Comparative study of political systems.
  • Effectiveness of international climate agreements.
  • Unraveling political consequences of economic sanctions.
  • Studying neocolonialism in modern economies.
  • Impact of income inequality on social stability.
  • Debating political implications of universal basic income.
  • Role of international courts in global governance.
  • Influence of cultural diversity on national policies.
  • Dissecting geopolitics in Arctic resource exploitation.
  • Understanding post-conflict reconciliation processes.
  • Evaluating state responses to refugee crises.
  • Study of civil disobedience in democratic societies.
  • Role of soft power in international relations.
  • Disentangling politics of global water disputes.

Political Science Research Topics by Subjects

Political science is a diverse field, consisting of multiple subdomains. To help you spot a fitting theme, we've organized research paper topics for political science according to these subjects. From international relations to public policy, this assortment promises a treasure trove of research opportunities just waiting to be explored.

Philosophy Political Science Research Topics

Philosophy politics research topics explore the intersection of political science and philosophical thought. These themes focus on fundamental questions, such as the purpose of politics and its effects on society. Here are a few ideas to get your started:

  • Relevance of Machiavelli's theories today.
  • Understanding justice in Plato's Republic.
  • Influence of Kantian ethics on governance.
  • Are human rights universal or culturally relative?
  • Interplay of liberty and equality in societies.
  • Exploring Hobbes' notion of social contract.
  • Rawls versus Nozick: theories of justice compared.
  • Feminist perspectives on political participation.
  • Role of ethics in bureaucratic institutions.
  • Marx's theory of capitalism: A critical review.
  • Foucault's perspectives on power and control.
  • Locke's influence on modern democracies.
  • Concepts of civil disobedience in Thoreau's writings.
  • Arendt on violence, power, and authority.
  • Exploring Gramsci's theory of cultural hegemony.
  • Derrida's deconstruction: A political tool?
  • Nietzsche’s perspectives on societal structure.
  • Understanding politics through Spinoza's lens.
  • Evaluating communitarianism in contemporary societies.
  • Habermas on communicative action in politics.

>> View more: Philosophy Paper Topics

Political Science Research Topics on Public Law

Public law is one of the most popular subdomains of political science, as it focuses on legal systems and state power. It's a domain that lets you explore how laws are formulated, implemented, and impact society. Below you can find various political research questions in public law, including constitutional issues, administrative governance, and individual rights, among others.

  • Role of constitution in shaping governance.
  • Impact of judicial activism on democracy.
  • Analyzing separation of powers in governments.
  • Free speech rights in digital platforms.
  • Repercussions of surveillance laws on privacy.
  • Comparative study of electoral laws.
  • Analyzing federalism in constitutional law.
  • Police power and civil liberties.
  • Effectiveness of anti-discrimination laws.
  • Administrative discretion: Power and accountability.
  • Impact of immigration laws on societies.
  • Understanding lawmaking process in parliamentary systems.
  • Role of supreme courts in constitutional interpretation.
  • Law enforcement and minority rights.
  • Legal aspects of environmental protection.
  • Hate speech laws and freedom of expression.
  • Public health laws in times of crisis.
  • Legal mechanisms to fight corruption.
  • Analyzing gun control laws across nations.
  • Legal challenges in the implementation of welfare policies.

>> Learn more:  Law Research Topics

Research Topics in Political Science on Public Administration

Public administration is the study of how governments and other public institutions are managed. It examines their structures, operations, policies, and politics to understand how they work in practice. Here's a collection of project topics for political science on public administration worth attention:

  • Understanding bureaucracy in modern governance.
  • Role of public administrators in policy implementation.
  • Effect of administrative reforms on public services.
  • Importance of ethics in public administration.
  • Evaluating public financial management systems.
  • Role of e-governance in public service delivery.
  • Analyzing gender representation in public administration.
  • Public administration in urban planning.
  • Role of public-private partnerships in governance.
  • Crisis management strategies in public administration.
  • Leadership challenges in public organizations.
  • Role of transparency in public service delivery.
  • Organizational culture in public administration.
  • Analyzing the politics-administration dichotomy.
  • Decision-making processes in public organizations.
  • Evaluating accountability mechanisms in public administration.
  • Human resource challenges in public services.
  • Impact of corruption on public administration.
  • Role of citizens' participation in public administration.
  • Comparative study of public administration models.

Political Science Research Paper Topics on Comparative Politics

Comparative politics research topics offer a window into how different political systems operate, what works, and what needs reevaluation. It encourages you to step outside the boundaries of your local context and grasp a more global perspective on political processes. The following political essay topics and paper ideas will fit any compare and contrast essay or project.

  • Social welfare measures across democracies.
  • Examining stability in different governmental systems.
  • Comparative analysis of electoral mechanisms.
  • Impact of societal culture on governance.
  • Federalism versus unitary systems: A comparative study.
  • Scrutinizing corruption in diverse economies.
  • A cross-nation study of education systems.
  • Protection of minority rights across countries.
  • Comparing freedom of the press globally.
  • Role of armed forces in various governmental structures.
  • Analyzing constitutional designs across nations.
  • A study on decentralization efforts in different countries.
  • Comparative research on party systems.
  • Gender and leadership: A cross-country examination.
  • Populism in different societal contexts.
  • Comparative view of environmental conservation measures.
  • Human rights protections in different nations.
  • Influence of colonial history on modern governance.
  • Cross-national study of immigration rules.
  • Role of religion in different governance systems.

Political Science Research Topics on Conflict Resolution

Conflict resolution is an essential field in political science, focusing on the methods and strategies used to mitigate disputes on local, national, and international levels. It opens up opportunities to explore how peace is achieved, maintained, and sometimes lost. Below you can find political issues to write about if you want to focus on different disputes.

  • Peacebuilding strategies in post-war societies.
  • Role of diplomacy in averting conflicts.
  • Effectiveness of international arbitration.
  • Power sharing as a tool for peace.
  • Influence of civil society on conflict resolution.
  • Role of United Nations in global peacekeeping.
  • Mediation strategies in intra-state conflicts.
  • Women in peace negotiations.
  • Strategies for resolving territorial disputes.
  • Analyzing post-conflict reconciliation processes.
  • Impact of economic sanctions on conflict resolution.
  • Role of international law in conflict mitigation.
  • Effectiveness of non-violent resistance.
  • Analyzing the success of peace treaties.
  • Study of disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration processes.
  • Resolving resource-based conflicts.
  • Role of third parties in conflict resolution.
  • Approaches to addressing ethnic conflicts.
  • Influence of climate change on conflict resolution.
  • Cyber conflict resolution strategies.

Political Science Research Topics on Meditation and Negotiation

Mediation and negotiation sit at the heart of conflict resolution, focusing on peaceful strategies to address disputes and foster cooperation. These techniques find wide application in various contexts, from local disagreements to international conflicts. These interesting research topics in political science allow you to understand how these processes work in theory and practice:

  • Role of intermediaries in peace processes.
  • Strategies for successful diplomatic discussions.
  • Comparative analysis of negotiation techniques.
  • Dialogue styles in international diplomacy.
  • Analyzing the success of secret diplomatic talks.
  • Role of non-state actors in negotiation.
  • Gender dynamics in discussion processes.
  • Influence of cultural factors on dispute resolution.
  • Role of international organizations in diplomatic dialogues.
  • Arbitration in maritime territorial disputes.
  • Use of discussions in trade agreements.
  • Role of trust in successful dialogues.
  • Addressing power asymmetry in discussions.
  • Track II diplomacy in mediation.
  • Impact of communication technology on dispute settlement.
  • Role of empathy in successful negotiation.
  • Influence of domestic politics on international mediation..
  • Conflict resolution strategies in labor disputes.
  • Role of transparency in negotiations.
  • Evolution of dispute resolution techniques over time.

>> View more: Communication Research Topics

International Relations Political Research Topics

International relations explores connections among nations, the roles of sovereign states, intergovernmental organizations, non-governmental organizations, and multinational corporations. This field offers a multitude of engaging research topics ranging from issues of diplomacy, international conflict, global cooperation, to international trade. Here are some political science research ideas that focus on international relations:

  • Role of multinational corporations in global governance.
  • Cross-border environmental cooperation.
  • Effectiveness of international law enforcement.
  • Influence of globalism on sovereignty.
  • Impact of digital diplomacy in foreign relations.
  • Evolution of global power structures.
  • Influence of cultural diplomacy in global partnerships.
  • Strategies for global poverty reduction.
  • Understanding geopolitics in Arctic exploration.
  • Challenges to global health collaboration.
  • Role of non-state actors in global governance.
  • Interplay of economics and international relations.
  • Humanitarian interventions: A critical analysis.
  • Cross-border migration and its global implications.
  • International responses to global pandemics.
  • Role of international courts in justice delivery.
  • Diplomacy in the age of information technology.
  • Analyzing global disarmament efforts.
  • Global efforts in counter-terrorism.
  • Evolution of international trade agreements.

American Politics Research Paper Topics

American politics is a wide-ranging field, including issues from the local, state, to national levels. It incorporates diverse aspects like public opinion, public policy, ideological shifts, and more. The United States' unique political system offers abundant potential for research. Here are American politics research topics for your next project:

  • Evolution of American federalism.
  • Impact of Supreme Court decisions on society.
  • Understanding American political polarization.
  • Role of third parties in U.S. elections.
  • Influence of social movements on legislation.
  • Examining executive orders' effectiveness.
  • Shifts in public opinion on climate change.
  • Impact of lobbying on American health care reform.
  • Influence of Presidential debates on voters.
  • Effects of gerrymandering on electoral outcomes.
  • Analyzing campaign finance reform in U.S.
  • Role of think tanks in shaping U.S. policy.
  • Implications of immigration reform on U.S. economy.
  • Gun control debate and policy outcomes.
  • Social justice and law enforcement reform.
  • Influence of race and ethnicity on voting patterns.
  • Role of the media in shaping public opinion.
  • Analyzing the U.S. response to global pandemics.
  • Examination of U.S. trade policies.
  • Impact of technology on U.S. governance.

Government Research Paper Topics

Government is a broad field that includes many different subdomains and politics topics to discuss. It revolves around the structures, processes, and functions of governing bodies, allowing you to explore the inner workings of various political systems. Here are some useful ideas on government:

  • Evaluating the meritocracy in civil services.
  • Digitization of public services: Impact and challenges.
  • Understanding state surveillance: Balancing security and privacy.
  • Impact of decentralization on local development.
  • Government's role in disaster management.
  • Analyzing the government's role in fostering innovation.
  • Study on government initiatives for financial inclusion.
  • Role of government in mitigating income inequality.
  • Government strategies in promoting renewable energy.
  • Analysis of government responses to recessions.
  • Public-private partnerships in infrastructure development.
  • Government regulation of the gig economy.
  • Role of government in promoting cultural heritage.
  • Public sector reforms for better governance.
  • Government interventions in housing markets.
  • Assessing government transparency initiatives.
  • Government's role in universal health care provision.
  • The impact of political term limits on governance.
  • Government initiatives in curbing the opioid crisis.
  • The role of governments in combating online misinformation.

Political Science Research Questions

Research questions provide a clear direction to your studies, defining what you want to achieve. Here are some unique research questions for political science that span a wide array of sub-areas:

  • How does social media shape public opinion on climate change policy?
  • How can local governments boost civic engagement?
  • How does income inequality impact political participation?
  • How do trade policies affect domestic industries?
  • How do immigration laws influence national identity?
  • How does political advertising affect voter turnout?
  • How does corruption impact public trust in government?
  • How does gender representation in government influence policy decisions?
  • What role does education play in political awareness?
  • How does political satire influence public perception of politicians?
  • How have government responses to pandemics evolved over time?
  • How does foreign aid impact the donor-recipient relationship?
  • How can governments leverage technology to improve public services?
  • How does cybersecurity impact national defense strategies?
  • How do international treaties impact national sovereignty?
  • How do political ideologies shape foreign policy?
  • How can governments promote sustainable urban development?
  • What is the role of youth in shaping future politics?
  • How does political stability affect economic growth?
  • How does political rhetoric shape public perception of immigration?

Extra Political Science Topics for Research Papers

Although the topics for political science research papers given above should help you kickstart your project, here are a few extra ideas to make sure you write an excellent project:

  • Green parties' influence on environmental sustainability.
  • Significance of political graffiti in social movements.
  • Virtual reality's potential in public engagement.
  • Role of cognitive psychology in voter behavior.
  • Understanding biopolitics: control and manipulation.
  • Space law's implications for international cooperation.
  • Implications of Internet of Things (IoT) for national security.
  • Analysis of language used in peace treaties.
  • Incorporating indigenous governance in modern state systems.
  • Decoding humor in political satire.
  • Political underpinnings in fantasy literature.
  • Political landscapes in virtual communities.
  • The politics of cryptocurrency regulation.
  • Using machine learning to predict election outcomes.
  • Role of street art in political protests.
  • Exploring the politics of veganism.
  • Political dimensions of genetic engineering ethics.
  • Pop culture's influence on political consciousness.
  • Influence of climate fiction ("cli-fi") on environmental policy.
  • Geopolitical consequences of the commercialization of space.

Bottom Line on Political Science Topics

We did our best to provide you with an assortment of good topics for political science research paper in every subdomain. Whether you're interested in philosophy, public law, international affairs, or something else entirely – this collection should have it all. We hope that at least one of these themes motivates you to do your best work yet! Remember that you can buy coursework or any other academic paper from certified writers with solid experience.

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Plato Research Paper Topics

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This page provides a comprehensive list of Plato research paper topics , offering students an in-depth exploration into the vast and intricate world of Platonic philosophy. From his foundational theories to modern interpretations, delve into topics that have shaped philosophical discourse for millennia. Whether you are a novice or an advanced student of philosophy, these research topics promise a deeper understanding of Plato’s profound contributions to the field.

100 Plato Research Paper Topics

Plato, a student of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle, remains an essential figure in the realm of philosophy. His profound insights into human nature, reality, and knowledge have shaped intellectual thought for over two millennia. Venturing into Plato research paper topics is more than just an academic exercise; it is a journey into the foundational ideas that have influenced Western thought. Engaging with these topics offers students a unique opportunity to better understand ancient philosophical insights that remain relevant today.

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  • The essence of the Theory of Forms.
  • Knowledge vs. Opinion in Plato’s thought.
  • The divided line and its implications for knowledge.
  • The role of the philosopher in understanding Forms.
  • The nature of the Form of the Good.
  • Plato’s critique of empiricism.
  • The role of recollection in acquiring knowledge.
  • The nature of true belief in Plato’s epistemology.
  • The impact of the Theory of Forms on later philosophical thought.
  • Plato’s idea of the immortal soul and its relation to knowledge.
  • The concept of the Good and its role in ethics.
  • Plato’s view on virtue and its cultivation.
  • The relationship between knowledge and virtue.
  • The role of desire and reason in ethical behavior.
  • Justice as harmony in the soul.
  • The tripartite nature of the soul.
  • Ethics and education in Plato’s philosophy.
  • The idea of the philosopher-king and ethical leadership.
  • The concept of the Noble Lie.
  • Plato’s views on love and friendship.
  • The ideal state and the role of the philosopher-king.
  • The concept of justice in The Republic .
  • The three classes of society in Plato’s ideal state.
  • The nature and role of censorship in the ideal state.
  • The role of women in Plato’s ideal state.
  • The importance of education in shaping rulers.
  • The idea of the Laws and its importance in governance.
  • The role of religion in the state according to Plato.
  • Plato’s criticism of democracy.
  • The nature of imitation in art.
  • The moral impact of art on the soul.
  • The concept of the Beautiful.
  • The role of the artist in society.
  • Art, truth, and reality.
  • The distinction between appearance and reality in art.
  • The educational role of art in society.
  • The idea of music and its impact on character.
  • The relationship between art and the Forms.
  • The role of censorship in art.
  • The symbolism of the cave, the prisoners, and the outside world.
  • The journey of the philosopher and the nature of enlightenment.
  • The allegory’s implications for epistemology.
  • The connection between the cave allegory and the Theory of Forms.
  • The role of education in the allegory.
  • The criticism of society and ignorance in the allegory.
  • The allegory’s influence on later philosophical and literary works.
  • Modern interpretations of the allegory in the context of technology.
  • The allegory and its relation to Plato’s idea of the divided line.
  • The political implications of the Allegory of the Cave.
  • The relationship between reason, spirit, and desire.
  • The immortal nature of the soul.
  • The concept of reincarnation and its moral implications.
  • Plato’s views on pleasure and pain.
  • The idea of the soul’s harmony.
  • The nature of evil and its place in human psychology.
  • The idea of self-mastery and its significance.
  • The soul’s journey after death.
  • The role of philosophy in purifying the soul.
  • Plato’s criticism of the Sophists.
  • The nature of truth: Plato vs. the Sophists.
  • The role of rhetoric in philosophy.
  • The idea of moral relativism and its critique by Plato.
  • The Sophistic view of education vs. Plato’s view.
  • The nature of virtue: inherent or teachable?
  • The significance of the “What is X?” question in Platonic dialogues.
  • The role of dialectic in arriving at truth.
  • The concept of power and its role in Sophistic and Platonic thought.
  • The implications of Sophistic thought for democracy.
  • The distinction between philosophy and rhetoric.
  • The role of truth in persuasion.
  • The nature of the rhetorician and his ethical responsibilities.
  • Plato’s critique of the misuse of rhetoric.
  • The role of dialectic vs. rhetoric in arriving at truth.
  • The place of emotions in persuasion.
  • The idea of the “true rhetorician.”
  • The significance of the Phaedrus in understanding Plato’s views on rhetoric.
  • The relationship between rhetoric, power, and politics.
  • The educational role of rhetoric in society.
  • The purpose and function of myth in Platonic philosophy.
  • The relationship between myth and reason.
  • The use of myth in illustrating philosophical concepts.
  • The nature of the Myth of Er and its eschatological significance.
  • The idea of the Demiurge in the Timaeus .
  • The significance of the Atlantis myth.
  • The use of myths in explaining the origin of the cosmos.
  • The moral implications of myth.
  • Myth, allegory, and their differences in Plato’s works.
  • The role of myth in Plato’s educational philosophy.
  • Modern Interpretations and Criticisms of Plato’s Philosophy
  • Neoplatonism and its interpretation of Platonic thought.
  • The influence of Plato on Christian theology.
  • Modern criticisms of Plato’s theory of Forms.
  • Feminist interpretations of Plato’s philosophy.
  • Marxist critiques of Plato’s ideal state.
  • Postmodern readings of Platonic dialogues.
  • Plato’s philosophy in the context of modern psychology.
  • The relevance of Platonic ethics in the 21st century.
  • The modern debate on Plato’s theory of knowledge.
  • Plato’s influence on contemporary metaphysical thought.

Plato’s legacy, encapsulated in these comprehensive Plato research paper topics, reaches far beyond his time, touching the minds of thinkers throughout history and today. His dialogues, brimming with rich philosophical insights, have paved the way for countless debates, discussions, and discourses. Embracing these topics is not just a scholarly endeavor but a journey into the depths of human thought, understanding, and the quest for truth. The enduring influence of Plato’s philosophical contributions underscores the timeless nature of his thought and its ever-relevant implications for both individual and societal contemplation.

The Range of Plato Research Paper Topics

When one thinks of the giants of Western philosophy, Plato’s name emerges as one of the most foundational and influential. His teachings and dialogues have informed and shaped philosophical thought for over two millennia, setting the stage for countless debates, discussions, and discourses. The profundity of his ideas, combined with the timeless nature of his questions, has ensured that Plato research paper topics remain as relevant today as they were in ancient Athens.

A Brief Overview of Plato’s Life and Times

Born around 428/427 BCE in Athens, Plato was a student of the renowned Socrates and later the teacher of Aristotle. He lived in a time of political upheaval and change, with Athens undergoing both the splendors of its golden age and the repercussions of the Peloponnesian War. The execution of his beloved teacher, Socrates, profoundly affected Plato and spurred him to document Socratic dialogues and establish his philosophical ideas. In his quest for knowledge and understanding, Plato founded the Academy, perhaps the world’s first institution of higher learning, ensuring that the pursuit of wisdom would continue for generations to come.

The Importance of Plato Research Paper Topics

Engaging with Plato research paper topics offers a unique window into the foundational principles of Western philosophical thought. His works, which span diverse areas like ethics, politics, metaphysics, and epistemology, present a holistic worldview that ties together the physical and the metaphysical, the individual and the society, the mortal and the eternal.

Plato’s conceptualizations, such as the Theory of Forms, challenge us to ponder on the nature of reality and our place within it. His ideas on justice, as presented in works like The Republic , question the essence of fairness, righteousness, and the ideal societal structure. His dialogues, rich with allegories like the Cave or myths like that of Atlantis, use narrative to delve into complex philosophical truths, making them both intellectually challenging and engagingly relatable.

Plato’s Dialogues and Their Relevance to Contemporary Philosophical Debates

Plato’s unique style of using dialogues to convey philosophical ideas ensures that his works are not mere didactic treatises but engaging literary pieces that invite discussion and debate. These dialogues often feature Socrates in conversation with various Athenians, exploring profound questions about love, courage, justice, and truth. Works such as the Phaedrus and the Symposium delve into the nature of love, its types, and its implications. The Meno and Phaedo , on the other hand, explore the nature of the soul, virtue, and the afterlife.

In contemporary times, Plato’s dialogues continue to be sources of profound philosophical inquiry. Modern scholars and philosophers turn to them to understand the genesis of ideas on morality, truth, reality, and knowledge. For instance, the allegory of the Cave, with its powerful imagery of shadows and the world outside, finds echoes in discussions about reality in the age of technology, virtual realities, and simulated experiences.

Furthermore, Plato’s views on politics, leadership, and society, as illustrated in The Republic and The Laws , provide fodder for debates on governance, justice, and citizenship in today’s complex geopolitical environment. His critiques of democracy, his vision of the philosopher-king, and his conceptualization of an ideal state challenge modern political thinkers to reevaluate and reassess contemporary systems of governance.

The Evolution and Interpretation of Plato’s Thought Across Centuries

Over the centuries, interpretations of Plato’s thought have evolved, with various philosophical schools and thinkers building upon, revising, or even opposing his ideas. Neoplatonism, for instance, emerged in the 3rd century AD, offering a fresh interpretation of Plato’s ideas, emphasizing the mystical and the transcendental. This school of thought had a profound influence on Christian theology, with thinkers like Saint Augustine drawing parallels between Plato’s Forms and Christian concepts of the divine.

The Renaissance period saw a revival of interest in Platonic thought, with humanists turning to his works as they sought to reconcile classical knowledge with Christian beliefs. Modernity, with its empirical and rationalist leanings, often critiqued Plato’s emphasis on the metaphysical, but his ideas continued to find resonance, influencing existentialists, phenomenologists, and even postmodernists.

Plato research paper topics offer a vast landscape of exploration, not just of the philosopher’s original ideas but also of the myriad interpretations and adaptations they have undergone. This dynamic, evolving discourse ensures that Plato’s thought remains alive, continually shedding light on new facets of human understanding.

In the intricate tapestry of philosophical thought, Plato’s threads run deep and wide, interwoven with the very fabric of how we understand ourselves and the world. Plato research paper topics are not merely retrospective glimpses into ancient wisdom but are vibrant, living avenues of inquiry that continue to inspire, challenge, and provoke. For any student of philosophy, diving into these topics is both a homage to the past and a clarion call for the future, reaffirming the enduring and ever-evolving relevance of Plato in modern academic and philosophical discourse.

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Navigating the vast landscape of Plato’s philosophical contributions demands not only a deep understanding of his works but also an adeptness in articulating intricate ideas into comprehensive research papers. At the forefront of providing such academic support stands iResearchNet, renowned for its unparalleled expertise in crafting custom Plato research papers that not only meet but exceed academic expectations.

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Political Philosophy, Research Paper Example

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Kant’s Political Philosophy

Emmanuel Kant wrote widely on political philosophy. Most of his writings on political thought are contained in a single book and a few shorter works that were published separately in 1797. His main book was entitled ‘Metaphysics of Morals. The first part of the two-part book was called “Doctrine of Right”. Almost all the political topics he wrote about are contained in this book.

In his shorter works, Kant wrote about topics such as international relations, meaning of enlightenment and natural rights. In Arendt’s view, Kant’s thoughts are best considered within practical and theoretical philosophy (56). Political philosophy is categorized under the practical element. However, a distinction is often made between empirical elements and those elements arising from virtue proper.

Kant emphasized on pure aspects that relate to political philosophy at the expense of empirical elements. He was particularly opposed to Hobbes, who argued that a politician should only be concerned with pragmatic governance and should never pay attention to abstract rights.

Kant’s political philosophy was governed by the categorical imperative and dwelt much on issue relating to deliberative human behavior. He focused on practical, which he defines as “the rules of human behavior with regard to ones free choice” at the expense of theoretical philosophy, which he understood to be all about “the rule of knowledge”.

Kant made a distinction between political rights and political virtues by through the two main parts that made up the book Metaphysics of Morals, namely: “Doctrine of Virtue”, and “Doctrine of Right”. He imposes some limitations on rights by defining three conditions that should be fulfilled for any idea to become an enforceable right.

To begin with, rights are only those actions which have an influence on other people. This means that duties that are for the benefit of the self are not rights. Secondly, rights are not concerned with the wish but only other people’s choices. This means that only actions at stake should be concerned as rights and not mere desires. Thirdly, right does not relate to matters involving the acts of other people, meaning that particular ends or desires cannot be regarded as right, but only the meaning, form and particular desires and ends that relate to many agents.

In order to make the understanding of the third condition become clear, Kant offers the example of trade, in which case for right to exist must involve an agreement between the two concerned parties, implying that any purpose that the agents want becomes right once an agreement is reached. These criteria seem less rigid than the way in which Kant ultimately intended them to be. This is because they encompass even those duties that are considered imperfect, but which are very beneficial to other people by improving their lives, a good example being acts of charity. This is contrary to the “harm principle” propounded by John Stuart Mill, which overcomes this problem by specifying that when subjected to law, the influence of right is always negative.

In addition to imposing conditions for determination of right, Kant goes ahead and contrasts between virtue and right. He is of the opinion that both of them relate intricately to freedom, but in very different ways. In this case, right is about outer freedom while virtue is about inner freedom. To be virtuous, according to Kant, is to be a master of one’s individual passions. Right is about the intended acts, which have to be considered independent of all the motives that the agent has for performing them. Virtue on the other hand, is about proper motives for all dutiful actions of an individual. Kant concludes that the freedom that arises out of proper considerations on matters of right and virtue is the basis of the state.

Karl Max’s Political Philosophy

Karl Marx (1818-1883) was born in a Jewish family in Trier, German Rhineland. Marx concentrated on political economy after relocating in London later in life. He wrote many publications about historical materialism, including Contribution to a Critique of Political Philosophy, which was produced in 1859. Most of today’s interpretations of Marx’s philosophy on political economy are based on this publication.

In his early writings, Marx made a distinction between political emancipation and human emancipation. He regarded political emancipation as the grant of liberties and liberal rights. He considered political emancipation is showing compatibility with the existence of religion, a good example being demonstrated by the United States. Marx argues that political emancipation is not only insufficient for complete human emancipation, it acts as a barrier. To explain this contention, Marx argued that ideas of justice and liberal rights are premised on the fundamental idea that every citizen needs protection from other people. Therefore, liberal rights are merely rights of separation, which are designed to protect us all from perceived threats. In such a view, freedom means freedom from interference.

The only view that is overlooked by Marx in his argument against political emancipation, specifically with matters of rights, is the fact that real freedom can only be achieved through positive relations among all people. According to Avineri, it is part of belonging in a human community, rather than a matter to be considered in isolation (66). Therefore, arguing for a regime of rights is tantamount to encouraging us to consider each other in a manner that undermines all possibilities of real freedom that we many achieve through human emancipation.

Marx is not essentially opposed to political emancipation since he considers liberalism to be an improvement on systems that encouraged discrimination and prejudice which existed in Germany at his time. Nevertheless, any politically emancipated liberalism has to be transcended on the ultimate route to genuine principles of human emancipation. It is unfortunate that Marx does not explain what he means by human emancipation, although it is rather clear that he uses the term in reference to ideals of non-alienated labor.

In ‘ Contribution to a Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right, Introduction’ , Marx makes the notorious remark when he writes that religion is “the opiate of the people”. He gives a detailed account of what he believes the role of religion in human emancipation to be. He also assesses the question of how a complete German revolution can be achieved and the role of proletariat in hastening the process of emancipation of the whole society.

Concerning religion, Marx agreed with Feuerbach’s claim in complete opposition to the traditional theologians’ conception that human beings created God in a manner that made Him look like themselves. He agreed with Feuerbach’s claim that by worshipping God, human beings were diverting their minds from the need to enjoy the human rights that they were entitled to. However, Marx criticizes Feuerbach by claiming that he does not understand why people find themselves in religious alienation and therefore is not in a good position to explain how religious alienation can be transcended.

According to Marx, human beings respond to alienation from material life by resorting to religion, and therefore, the only way to deal with this alienation is to bring about material emancipation, in which case religion will start withering away. Karl Marx, while appreciating the need for communal essence, believes that the sense of community that is created by religion is false. On the other hand, the state creates a false sense of equality in the eyes of the law. He believes in order for a genuine community to be created, the ideals of both religion and state have to be transcended through material emancipation.

John Locke’s Political Philosophy

John Locke’s (1632-1704) contribution to political philosophy is categorized into three areas: the law of nature, the state of nature and property. Concerning the law of nature, the theory of natural rights and natural law forms the most central theoretical perspective of Locke’s political philosophy. The concept of natural existed long before it was expounded by Locke, whereby certain moral truths applied to everyone, regardless of any prior agreements made or where one lived. Contrast had already been made between those laws that were made by nature, and therefore applicable to everyone everywhere, and the conventional laws that applied in only particular places where particular convention had already been put in place.

In the 16 th century, ideas on natural rights had gained prominence through written works by many philosophers, including Hobbes, Grotius and Puffendorf. Natural rights emphasized claims or privileges that individuals were entitled to. On the other hand, natural law was all about duties. Disagreements often arise when the relationships between these two concepts is being analyzed in Locke’s theory.

Leo Strauss as well as his supporters considers rights as essentially paramount in nature, and even goes ahead to portray that Locke’s position is similar to that held by Hobbes. Strauss says that Locke was in support of a hedonist theory in his attempt to explain human motivation, and therefore claims that we ought to agree with Hobbes’ belief that human beings are self-interested in nature.

In contrast to the arguments of Leo Strauss and his supporters, Tully, Dunn and Ashcraft are of the view that the primary element that defines human political philosophy is natural law and not natural rights. They are of the view that by emphasizing the right to liberty, life and property, John Locke was primarily emphasizing the need us to have a sense of duty towards other people: the duties not to enslave, kill or steal, respectively.

Chappell observes that majority of political philosophy scholars are of the view that Locke identified the need for a general duty to offer assistance through preservation of mankind, including the duty to offer charity to all people who do not have any way of procuring their subsistence (129). The scholars believe that duties are primary in Locke’s view since rights only exist in order to create the right environment for us to be able to fulfill all our duties.

State of nature, according to John Locke, exists when no legitimate political authority exists that is able to offer judgments involving disputes and where live according to the law of reason. In this regard, state of nature is very distinct from any political society (whereby there exists a legitimate government) and from a state of war (whereby men do not abide to the law of reason).

The theory of state of nature seems to have a close relationship with theory of natural law, mainly because the latter theory defines citizens’ rights in terms of freedom and equality. If the ground of accepting characterization offered by Locke regarding people being equal free and independent is strengthened, the state of nature becomes a more helpful device to be used for representing citizens. The central question for John Locke is whether or not a good government should be considered legitimate if it does have the complete consent of the citizens who are governed by it. In this case, actual contract and hypothetical contract theories tend to give different answers to this question.

The issue of property is considered one of the most important contributions that John Locke made in political thought. However, it is also one of the few aspects of his political philosophy that has suffered the most severe criticism. Different interpretations have been emerging relating to what Locke intended to achieve through his theory of property. Some scholars, such as C.B Macpherson consider Locke to be in strong defense of a process of capitalist accumulation that is free from any form of any restriction.

Macpherson’s interpretation of Locke’s property theory has been criticized from different quarters. For instance, Allan Ryan argues that since Locke takes property to include life, property and estate, it means that people with no land may still belong to the political society. The dispute that arises is on whether Locke is using property in an expansive sense or not. Some scholars consider Locke’s property rights theory to have fundamental flaws because of the way in which it underestimates the actual extent to which a state’s wage labor has the potential to make poor people become dependent on the rich, thereby undermining self-government.

The final question relates to the issue of property rights that have been acquired during the state of nature once a civil society has been put in place. Locke seems to be in support of introduction of taxes through consent by the majority, rather than through the requirement of unanimous consent.

Thomas Hobbes’ Political Philosophy

Thomas Hobbes was a 17 th Century philosopher who is considered one of the greatest political philosophers. His masterwork, Leviathan, rivals some political writings of prominent philosophers such as Plato, Rousseau, Aristotle, Rawls and Kant. Hobbes is most famous for developing the social contract theory, whereby he provides a method for justifying different political principles and arrangements through appeal to agreements that are made among persons who are suitably situated in an environment of rationality, freedom and equality.

Hobbes became infamous for using the social contract method to come up with a conclusion that astonished many people of his time: that all people must submit to an authority that has an absolute sovereign power. His methodological innovation led to a constructive impact on subsequent developments in political philosophy. However, his substantive decisions were used by some people to develop palatable philosophical positions.

The main goal of Hobbes’ philosophical project was to discover some rational principles through which a civil polity that would not suffer destruction from within could be constructed. He was motivated by the terrible experiences of living in an era in which political structures were disintegrating, resulting in the English Civil War. From these experiences, he concluded that only absolute governments are not prone to the systematic process of disintegration and an inevitable civil war. For this reason, he argued, people have to submit to a certain political authority that is absolute in its structures and mode of operation.

Continued stability, in Hobbes’s view can only be achieved if all people refrain from actions that may undermine the absolute regime. For instance, under no circumstances should people dispute the legality of the sovereign power or rebel against it. In general, Hobbes sought to demonstrate the reciprocal relationship that exists between political obedience and lasting peace.

In order for us to understand the need for an absolute government, Hobbes discusses how life would be like in a society where people live in a state of nature. A state of nature exists where there is not government. In this state, each person decides for himself what to do. Each person is the judge in his own case whenever there is a dispute. This is a state of private judgment in its most perfect sense, whereby not a single agency or recognized authority exists to arbitrate in disputes or an effective power to ensure the decisions arrived at are enforced.

Hobbes was opposed to John Locke’s Second Treatise of Government, in which he propounded the argument that a state of nature was preferred instead of subjection to an absolutely sovereign government, whose power was arbitrary. However, Hobbes famously argued that lack of laws and a highly coercive power would make it difficult, if not impossible, for maintenance of security, upon which a comfortable, civilized life depended. He argued that in a state of nature, life for man would be nasty, poor, brutish, solitary and short.

Many readers have criticized the idea of life in the state of nature according to Hobbes to be extremely pessimistic, that he arrives at normative and empirical assumptions that are individually plausible and therefore subjective. He bases his arguments from the premise that human beings have a strong tendency to “shun death”, that the urge preserve is so strong in every human being that one cannot help being partial such matters as moral judgments, perception of others as well as membership to religious groups.

Hobbes observes that although people are inclined towards religious beliefs in order to dispel fears of death, the content of each person’s beliefs differ according to the religious education that one has received. In terms of normative assumptions, Hobbes believes that in a state of nature, every person exercises a liberty right of self-preservation, a phenomenon he refers to as “the right of nature”. The right of nature refers to the freedom by an individual to do anything he feels is necessary for one’s preservation.

In Armitage’s assessment of Hobbes social contract theory, it is true to say that the right of nature is a theoretically limited right although in practice, the right easily becomes unlimited, whereby an individual can do anything for self-preservation (101). Hobbes refers to this as the “right to all things”. Further, he assumes the practical rationality principle. According to this principle, people should adopt to whatever they consider to be the most necessary means to the ends that they hold dearest.

Hobbes responds to the question of whether a state of nature has ever existed by giving three examples of states of nature in their putative form. First, he observes that sovereign states tend to exist in this state with respect and in relation to each other. This example made readers perceive Hobbes as a realist in matters of international relations. Secondly, he noted that many civilized people of ‘today’ were formerly in a state of nature; that the United States in his days was still in a state of nature. Thirdly, Hobbes significantly notes that a state of nature is most easily recognized by citizens of formerly peaceful states that have recently disintegrated into civil war.

Although the conception of a state of nature is a sort of an abstraction, something that resembles it is a possibility in this world, something that should be feared and avoided.

Works Cited

Arendt, Hannah. Lectures on Kant’s Political Philosophy . Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1982.

Armitage, David. “Hobbes And The Foundations Of Modern International Thought”, in Rethinking the Foundations of Modern Political Thought , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.

Avineri, Shlomo. The Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970.

Chappell, Vere. The Cambridge Companion to Locke , Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.

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Political philosophy research paper Aristotle

Profile image of Sherif Aboushanab

2017, Political philosophy research paper Aristotle

Aristotle and his ideas proved to be of great importance and he is one of the most prominent and well-known figures in Ancient Greek Philosophy this paper discusses the main ideas that were considered important and significant to Aristotle those ideas mainly are related to Logic, Education, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, roots of Anarchy, Justice and Nature, friendship, and defining a Psychological state.

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These are some notes for a multi-day discussion of Aristotle's seminal work on the organization of cities, the realization of virtue, and other foundational issues in political theory.

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My essay Explanation New Philosophy of Man has been published in the UNESCO e-magazine for culture and philosophy Philosophical Views, ISSUE 4, 2017, pp. 35-36. It has been peer reviewed, assessed and approved by an international team of prominent philosophers. The Explanation would need to be added in some form to a revised edition of the English-language version of my book (http://ow.ly/NtNnw); the information it contains can be regarded as resulting from the new developments that have crossed my path in recent years.

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The present study investigates Aristotle's view on education in relation with his view on politics. Two of Aristotle's works, Nicomachean Ethics and Politics are analyzed for this study. The discussion starts with what science is and how it can be classified according to Aristotle. In the second part where education and politics are in this classification of sciences, what their aims are and how they are connected are discussed. The discussion ends with a third section in which Aristotle's ideas about the concepts of " good for men " and " happiness " are explored.

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The studies of philosophy and forms of government according to Aristotle in Politics, provide us elements of how is grounded the State inside philosophy of law, such as his concepts of city, constitution and the political organization. In this study, these concepts of State are associated to historical conceptions of Western political philosophers as Plato, Hobbes, Rousseau and Montesquieu. The aim of the research is to find the historical background for the development of contemporary State and to understand the reasons for which each form was established. Resumo. O estudo sobre a filosofia e as formas de governo disposto por Aristóteles em A Política, nos fornece subsídios de como são fundamentados os Estados dentro da filosofia do direito, assim como são as cidades, as constituições e as organizações políticas atuais. Nesse estudo os preceitos dos Estados são associados às concepções históricas de pensadores políticos clássicos como Platão, Hobbes, Rousseau e Montesquieu. Com isso possibilitou-se contextualizar o desenvolvimento do Estado e suas formas de governo englobadas no campo filosófico, compreendendo a razão pela qual cada forma foi estabelecida. Essa pesquisa busca colaborar para delinear fundamentos históricos do Estado contemporâneo.

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