Journal of Extension Education

Journal of Extension Education

About the Journal

The Journal of Extension Education (JEE) is a peer-reviewed open-access journal in the field of extension education published by the Extension Education Society (EES).

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10 The Power of Extension: Research, Teaching, and Outreach for Broader Impacts

Jeremy Elliott-Engel; Courtney Crist; and Gordon Jones

Introduction

The land-grant university (LGU) system was created on a foundation of three missions: classroom-teaching, research, and a specific type of community education called Extension [1] . The majority of this book has highlighted and focused on the formal higher-education classroom-teaching experience of the mission, and your doctoral program has provided training on the research component. This chapter will focus on the third mission, Extension (at non-LGU institutions similar efforts may be called outreach, engagement, or service). The Cooperative Extension System (CES) has a mission to translate research-based findings, best practices, and information in four broad program areas: youth development (4-H), agriculture and natural resources (ANR), family and consumer sciences (FCS), and community development (Seevers et al., 2007). Land-grant universities employ Extension educators to work from campus and state regional centers, as well as in local county or city offices to deliver Extension education programs based on stakeholder needs—including state, industry, and community needs (Baughman et al., 2012). It should be noted that university and state Extension organizational structures and program priority areas differ by state.

Extension educators offer nonformal educational programs to both businesses and the citizens of their communities. Local Extension educators are supported by research and Extension faculty across departments from the LGU. To start our journey to understanding what Extension education is, and how you, as a future or current LGU faculty member and researcher, will support Extension education, we will recount the history of the LGU mission, then introduce a learning theory for nonformal education, and finally explain the unique planning processes of Extension education programs.

The objectives of this chapter are to provide a translation of effective teaching practices from the higher-education classroom and emphasize the interconnections of teaching and research disciplines to impactful community outreach, engagement, and impact.

This chapter will discuss…

  • The origin and mission of the land-grant university system.
  • Educational theory utilized in non-formal educational settings.
  • Educational learning contexts and environments outside of the formal classroom.
  • How to establish and integrate a research, teaching, and outreach educational program to support broader impacts

What Is Extension?

The use of the word “Extension” derives from an educational development in England during the second half of the nineteenth century. Around 1850, discussions began in the two ancient universities of Oxford and Cambridge about how they could serve the educational needs, near to their homes, of the rapidly growing populations in the industrial, urban area. It was not until 1867 that a first practical attempt was made in what was designated “university Extension,” but the activity developed quickly to become a well-established movement before the end of the century. (Jones & Gartforth, 1997, p. 1)

The idea of Extension started in the late nineteenth century in both the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States of America (US) with three components: adult education, technology transfer, and advisory services (Shinn et al., 2009). In the United States, the development of the Extension system started on July 2, 1862, when President Abraham Lincoln signed the Morrill Land-Grant College Act (Morrill Land-Grant Act, 1862). This legislation forming the LGU system was sponsored by Vermont Senator Justin Smith Morrill. Passage of the Morrill Act was unexpected because President James Buchanan had previously vetoed a version of the act in June 1860 due to Southern state representatives’ criticisms that granting Western territorial land was an imprudent use of resources. The Western territorial lands were lands taken from Native Americans by the US government. The bill that was vetoed had granted just 2,000 acres for a university’s setup. The successful version of the Morrill Act granted 30,000 acres of Western territorial land as an endowment to establish at least one college per state and territory (Wessel & Wessel, 1982). The Morrill Act successfully passed in 1862 largely because Southern states representatives were absent from Congress at the time of the vote due to the Civil War (Lee, 1963).

The established purpose of the LGU institutions is to make liberal and practical education available to all citizens of the nation, particularly the working class (Duemer, 2007; Depauw & McNamee, 2006; Lee, 1963; Simon, 1963). To achieve this mission the Morrill Act and its successors were deliberately designed not simply to encourage, but to force the states to significantly increase their efforts on behalf of higher education. The federal government, having promoted the establishment of new colleges, made it incumbent upon the states to supply the means of future development and expansion (Lee, 1963, p. 27). The LGUs married the humanistic idea of the renaissance university (liberal education) and the German university (practical education) (Bonnen, 1998). This combination of liberal and practical education in one institution was designed to democratize education and provide educational opportunities for all citizens. The LGUs evolved into entities with a three-pronged mission of research, teaching, and outreach (Simon, 1963).

In 1890, a second Morrill Act was passed, which prohibited the distribution of money to states that made race a consideration when making decisions about admission to their state’s 1862 LGU institution (Lee & Keys, 2013). Each state had to demonstrate that race was not a criterion when considering a student’s admission to the LGU. If Blacks or other persons of color were unable to be admitted because of race, then a separate LGU was established for them (Comer et al., 2006). This resulted in 19 previously slave-holding states establishing public colleges serving Blacks (Allen & Jewell, 2002; Provasnik et al., 2004; Redd, 1998; Roebuck & Murty, 1993). These “1890” institutions were awarded cash in lieu of land; however, they retain the designation of “land grant” due to the legislation. The 1890 institutions brought public and practical education to previously excluded and marginalized populations.

All 50 US states have one land-grant institution which was established in 1862, and many states have additional minority-serving land grants that were founded by the 1890 or 1994 bills. Most southeastern states also have one 1890 land-grant university each (i.e., Virginia, West Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Missouri, Oklahoma, and all states directly south of them). Many northern states have one or more 1994 land-grant tribal colleges, as well as California, Arizona, New Mexico, Hawaii, Oklahoma, and Kansas. Hawai'i, most northeastern states, Nevada, Oregon, Idaho, Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, Illinois, and Indiana only have 1862 land grants. Montana has the most land grants at a total of 8.

In 1994, the Equity in Educational Land-Grant Status Act established 29 tribal colleges and universities as “1994” tribal land-grant institutions. These institutions have a mission to provide federal government resources to improve the lives of Native American students through higher education (USDA-NIFA, 2015).

The three current missions of research, teaching, and outreach were achieved through additional legislation. The 1887 Hatch Experiment Station Act (Hatch Act) established the State Agricultural Experiment Station (SAES) to improve agricultural production through applied agriculture research and to provide educational outreach opportunities through the LGUs (Knoblauch et al., 1962). Joining the locally responsive research from the SAES with the LGUs expanded the capacity for classroom education and provided the opportunity to share knowledge onsite at research stations across each state. However, to extend the positive benefits of knowledge farther afield, more efforts were needed. Cooperative Extension began when President Woodrow Wilson signed the Smith-Lever Act into law on May 8, 1914. The purpose of Extension was declared to be an effort “to aid in diffusing among the people of the U.S. useful and practical information on subjects related to agriculture and home economics, and to encourage the application of the same” (Rasmussen, 1989, p. 7). The Smith-Lever Act did not specifically state that Extension services should only work with farmers (Ilvento, 1997; Rogers, 1988). Extension was designed to take the research-based knowledge generated at the LGUs and the SAES to US citizens through a partnership between LGUs and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).

The implementation of this organizational system had significant and profound effects on adult education in the United States. Liberty Hyde Bailey, a renowned botanist and Cornell faculty member, was instrumental in the formation of the Extension service and 4-H; he argued that Extension could not address agricultural production issues without also addressing the social and human issues facing rural communities (Ilvento, 1997; Rosenberg, 2015). At the time, he lost the argument to Seaman Knapp, then president of Iowa Agricultural College, who laid the foundation of the Agricultural Experiment stations as an employee of the USDA. Knapp argued the role of Extension was solely to educate reluctant farmers on new technology (Ilvento, 1997; Peters, 1996). Because of Knapp’s influence, the purpose of Extension began as instruction and practical demonstration concerning agriculture and home economics for individuals in communities across the state who would otherwise not have access to information and new innovations.

The name Cooperative Extension emerged from the cost sharing, which required using state and local funding sources to match the funds contributed by the USDA. Currently, federal partners supply approximately 30 percent of the system’s financial resources, while state and local (e.g., county) funds make up the remaining portion of the budget (Rasmussen, 1989). Further, following funding trends within higher education, a growing share of Extension budgets consists of extramural grants and contracts (Jackson & Johnson, 1999).

The focus of US Extension work has evolved from primarily relaying technical innovation to also providing leadership for social, cultural, and community change and development (Stephenson, 2011) by partnering with communities to identify solutions to challenges in partnership (Vines, 2017). As previously mentioned, this adaption reflects a move toward Bailey’s perspective that community programming cannot provide technical knowledge without first supporting the individual and social needs of the participants. Extension, because of the nature of the organization, has always engaged with communities, and more importantly, has acted as an accessible and knowledgeable resource for the communities they serve. Extension professionals have sought to respond to society and community needs, whether in response to supporting a reduction of poverty in rural communities (Rogers, 1988; Selznick, 2011) or helping the nation survive World War I, the Great Depression, and World War II (Rasmussen, 1994) by ensuring the sustainability of food resources, and by supporting rural electrification (Rosenberg, 2015), rural telephone, and today, broadband access (Whitacre, 2018). The mission of Extension has expanded from a focus on agriculture and family and consumer sciences to incorporate areas of health, community, and business development, and from solely rural audiences to rural, suburban, and urban communities (Morse, 2009; DePauw & McNamee, 2006). While work remains to be done, 1862 LGUs in every state and territory work to serve a demographically representative population and address community challenges (Elliott-Engel, 2018), and 1890 and 1994 LGUs target historically underserved populations with specific interventions.

What Is Extension Education?

Early practitioners of … Extension education drew from foundational theories of learning and teaching (Dewey, 1938; James, 1907; Lancelot, 1944). During the early evolution, knowledge was grounded in observation and experience and passed to others through direct engagement methods. Over time, …Extension education integrated the principles of learning and teaching, applied research, and Extension outreach. Today’s field of study draws from educational psychology and the works of Bandura (1977), Bruner (1966), Gagné (1985), Knowles (1975), Piaget (1970), Thorndike (1932), Vygotsky (1978), and others. Perspectives of learning rise from the educational theories of behaviorism and constructivism, while the perspectives of teaching are drawn from the works of Freire (1972), Habermas (1988), Kolb (1984), Lewin (1951), and others who advanced problem solving, critical thinking, and communicative reason. (Shinn et al., 2009, p.77)

Extension is an organization that continuously plans, executes, and evaluates programs with learners (Meena et al., 2019, p. 17) and updates or modifies as needed. Extension education is a knowledge exchange system that engages change agents in a participatory persuasive process of educating stakeholders in a changing world (Shinn et al., 2009). Extension educators are professionals in the social, behavioral, and natural and life sciences who use sound principles of teaching and learning, and they integrate the sciences relevant for the development of human capital and for the sustainability of agriculture, food, renewable natural resources, and the environment (Shinn et al., 2009).

Extension education can be conducted and executed in many forms including in-person education (e.g., workshops, seminars, demonstrations, short courses), publication (e.g., website, print media), and using social media (e.g., infographics). In many non-LGU institutions, Extension is commonly referred to as community outreach or engagement. These terms originated in the Extension education movement. The work, when adopted, contributes to the democratic process of encouraging institutions of higher education to help extend research efforts beyond the students in the classroom and fellow researchers in academe to communities or businesses where it can be directly applied.

There are several principles that are important to keep in mind to ensure success in extending research and knowledge outside the higher education environment. The education of community members has different principles than the formal education setting. In formal education settings, motivation is incentivized by earning grades needed to receive certification through the earning of a degree. In nonformal education settings, education centers around learners’ motivations to obtain the knowledge being offered and its impact on their livelihood or success.

Nonformal Education Theory

Nonformal education is the learning instruction provided beyond the traditional secondary education system designed to prepare individuals (adolescents and adults) to achieve their personal, social, and economic life goals (Okojie, 2020). When extending their research beyond the formal classroom, the educator becomes an adult and nonformal educator, also known as an Extension educator. Extension educators remain intentional and systematic while also recognizing content can and should be adapted for different clientele (Etling, 1993).

Researchers have defined adult learners in overlapping but somewhat different ways. Merriam (2008) describes adult learners as those whose age, social roles, and self-perception define them as adults. Adult learning theory is informed by foundational scholars in related fields such as psychology and sociology. The theories of behaviorism, cognitivism, humanism, constructivism, and connectivism illuminate different learner types and their disposition toward the process of education (Balakrishnan, 2020). The main ideas, approaches, and contributions of these theories have been summarized for your reference in table 10.1. The denotation of the theory, approach, and application is indicated by the theorists’ major works and forthcoming implications.

Each theorist presents a systematic explanation for the observed facts and laws that relate to a specific aspect of life (Williamson, 2002), in this case the nonformal learner. Each of the theorists allows the Extension educator to conceptualize the learner in different ways. The nonformal learners bring their lived experiences, and thus, their varied motivations to the educational process. The educator in the nonformal context must think about barriers to participation and adoption (Rogers, 2003) of the practice or materials presented.

Nonformal Education Is Present Everywhere

The nonformal educator views all contexts and environments as a possible classroom and everyone as a possible student. The educator working with or through Extension (Extension Educator) has the flexibility to extend research and technical knowledge across many meaningful educational strategies (Fordham, 1979). The variety of strategies provides the Extension educator much greater flexibility, versatility, and adaptability than their formal classroom educator counterpart to meet the diverse learning needs of each clientele, and to adapt as those needs evolve (Coombs, 1976). Education can happen within numerous contexts. Common educational strategies for Extension education can be broken into three broad categories: An Extension educator can support a learner’s knowledge change through (1) face-to-face programming, (2) print, and (3) social media. Each approach has unique considerations for teaching and learning across areas of content, which are discussed below.

Face-to-Face

Many methods exist for engaging learners in person, and each uses a different approach to disseminating research. Clientele and subject matter will largely drive the type of face-to-face instruction. While many of the same teaching strategies for formal education can be applied in the nonformal educational setting, it is important to note the differences. For example, in most Extension programming, you will not assign homework and will not be giving graded assignments. Also, your learners need to be engaged with real-world relevance—this should also happen in a formal education setting, but sometimes this connection is forgotten. Learners also bring their own lived experiences and expertise into the learning environment. Many different strategies can be implemented and each has a different educational approach.

The in-person strategies vary from one-on-one training or consulting to large format training, to groups of learners co-developing knowledge, or applied hands-on demonstrations. You will notice that each of these teaching and learning modes connect to the theoretical constructs of learning in table 10.1.

Direct client support, such as technical assistance, is a large component of Extension specialists’ responsibilities. Stakeholder needs can vary with program area or content. Often, in specific circumstances, specialists may visit clients at their operations to assist directly with troubleshooting, system improvement, pilot testing, or optimizing methods. Extension has a rich history of disseminating information and teaching best practices to the stakeholders they serve. Each discipline may have a different approach or structure for assisting clients. Client assistance is largely dependent on the client’s current state and needs. As an example, food science (family and consumer sciences) provides a wide array of services to clientele including food safety consultation on process deviations, interpretation of laws, labeling review, educational information, shelf-life information, product analysis, food safety training, and meeting the requirements for processing and selling food.

The work of Extension provides an opportunity for educating and connecting with all of society in a state and/or local region rather than solely those connected to higher education. It is important to develop Extension programs and supporting materials that are inclusive of the broad range of human experiences, cultures, resources, and identities, and to be sensitive to the systemic disadvantage that many groups have experienced (Farella, Moore, et al., 2021). We should strive to remember that programs which have historically been offered by the Extension Service were designed to cater to the needs of the majority, and that we have a responsibility to design—or redesign—our Extension programs to be equitable and meet the needs of everyone (Farella, Hauser et al., 2021; Fields, 2020). Careful assessment of the needs of the communities we serve and, in many cases, further understanding for ourselves as educators, are required to develop inclusive, accessible, and culturally sensitive programming.

Extension provides services such as seminars, training, continuing education, and certifications for clients ranging from producers to general public interest. Extension has and provides the subject matter experts to deliver these training and educational opportunities in diverse content areas. Further, Extension often has a public reputation for disseminating reliable information without bias. Training may be presented in collaboration with state and/or federal regulatory agencies or may be provided to meet regulatory standards and requirements outlined by governing agencies. For example, American National Standards Institute (ANSI) certification (e.g. ServSafe, Safe Plates), Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs), related certifications of Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA), and Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) trainings and certifications are required by regulatory agencies depending on the sector of the industry. In agriculture, Extension educators deliver programs which provide continuing education credits for pesticide applicators and programs like Beef Quality Assurance for livestock producers. Extension specialists and personnel/agents often offer these training and certifications as part of their programmatic planning in a way to serve stakeholders. Extension trainers may need additional training and experience to certify participants and lead state training sessions.

Similar to research collaborations, Extension educators also collaborate with colleagues in other states, counties, departments, and universities to diversify and expand programmatic efforts to a wider audience. Expertise among state Extension systems can vary and collaboration allows for better programming that serves both stakeholders and Extension educators. and Additionally, within the university, course collaborations are useful as clients may need topic diversity. Generally, entrepreneur series include speakers from across departments (i.e., varied subject areas) as well as topics to provide a general introduction to the subjects.

Using the Food industry  as an example, subject matter experts represent agricultural economics, government/regulatory agencies, marketing, food safety, and business (Crist & Canales, 2020). These programs provide stakeholders a foundation of information as well as contacts in the event they need further assistance in that specific subject area. Recently, Extension program delivery has shifted toward using more online educational platforms, certification programs, expert happy hours, and “lunch and learn” series in order for stakeholders to access the information they need as well as provide a forum for questions.

Extension specialists–faculty with a content area focus– can provide programmatic and subject matter competency in-service opportunities and training to Extension agents–county-based Extension professionals. Inservice training is considered continuing education and an opportunity to increase subject matter competency. Further, agents select the programs that they will deliver in the county. Specialists provide in-service training to agents so they may deliver these programs as intended and/or provide additional insight to the execution of the program. Inservice opportunities can include many topics and range in subject matter from youth development to agriculture and natural resources. Further, inservice training is provided throughout the year and on different education platforms including webinars, face-to-face training or lectures, and online platforms.

Syllabus Development

As Extension educators, it is important to make connections for students in traditional education to career paths and opportunities. As a group, Extension educators need to advocate and share their stories and passion with audiences that may not be familiar with the unique career opportunities of Extension, as most will associate higher education with the pillars of research and teaching. Some students may be familiar with part of Extension either through 4-H involvement or by having parents who were involved in educational offerings (e.g., master gardener). You can strengthen the connection of careers in Extension by incorporating assignments, presentations, and curriculum development into courses. Additionally, your institution may have Extension apprenticeship programs. These types of programs can be a valuable opportunity for students to learn more about the day-to-day Extension roles while at the same time impacting their communities. Integrating some of our communication pathways into syllabi or student experiences will expose them to the multifaceted world of Extension.

Community of Practice

The Communities of Practice (CoP) framework is constructed from the exchange of a group of people who have a shared interest and want to improve on that interest using regular interactions with each other to accomplish that development (Wenger, 1998). Lave and Wenger (1991) introduced CoP to provide a template for examining the learning that happens among practitioners in a social environment comprising both novices and experts. Newcomers use this exchange between these populations to create a professional identity. Wenger (1998) then advanced the focus of CoP to personal growth and the trajectory of individuals’ participation within a group (i.e., peripheral versus core participation). No matter the purpose of educational outcome, CoPs can be designed intentionally, fostered informally, or identified after they have developed organically. A CoP can also be an outcome from learning experiences (Elliott-Engel & Westfall-Rudd, 2018) that result from your strategy and lead to connecting people, providing a shared context, enabling dialogue, stimulating learning, capturing and diffusing existing knowledge, introducing collaborative processes, helping people organize, and generating new knowledge (Cambridge et al., 2005).

A great example of direct client support (and farm model training), as well as being the foundation of the Extension service, is boll weevil eradication. The boll weevil was an invasive insect pest that was devastating cotton crops throughout the South in the early 1900s. Seaman Knapp, who has been mentioned previously, was sent to Mississippi by the USDA to help find a solution to the boll weevil infestation. Knapp set up an experimental farm to demonstrate to growers’ methods for mitigating the boll weevil damage. The farm opportunity became the model for agricultural demonstration (Mississippi State University Extension Service, 2020; Palmer, 2014). Similar stories exist for other areas and educational formats. For example, the foundation of family and consumer sciences began with home-demonstration clubs that focused on improving nutrition and living conditions for rural families. These sessions continue today and address a variety of topics such as nutrition, cooking, health, mental health, financial literacy, volunteer programs, and home-based businesses (Mississippi State University Extension Service, 2020).

Print Communications

Print media is an important form of education delivery we often think of as andragogy rather than pedagogy. Most, if not all of us, have heard the phrase “publish or perish” in reference to faculty roles. This colloquialism emphasizes that print formats of education are highly valued in the academe. Yet, not all forms of print publication are equivalent or have the same credibility (e.g., burden of peer review), and thus their value is weighted differently by the institution’s Promotion and Tenure review board.

A successful Extension educator should formulate a plan of distribution that includes each level of communication. Figure 10.2 provides a framework for you to think through how you can take your research findings and translate these specific findings into all forms of print communication. An Extension educator should provide multiple communication formats to ensure that the research done on campus is communicated to the citizens of the state they serve.

Publications that are weighted more heavily for promotion and tenure tend to have smaller potential audiences. Journal articles, which target other researchers in order to advance theory and praxis, are weighted most heavily but have a very small potential audience. Extension publications, which are tools for improving praxis, can reach slightly larger audiences but are weighted less heavily for tenure. This is followed by popular press articles, which can distribute information to the public, but are not weighted highly in most tenure packages. Blog posts are even more accessible to larger audiences, but weighted less still. The most accessible publication that can reach the largest audience, social media posts, are barely evaluated in tenure at most institutions.

It is unfortunate that social media and electronic options give the greatest reach for distributing research findings to a large audience and yet are weighted the least. Social media and other digital forms of publication are hard to evaluate for impact as well as implementation and/or behavior change. It would be easy to become hyperfocused on submitting publications to journals with a high-impact factor because that is what is favored for promotion. Yet, in Extension, we must ask, what is the value of creating new knowledge if it stays within the walls of the ivory tower? Extension’s purpose and mission is disseminating research-based evidence to improve the lives of the stakeholders they serve.

Social Media

Social media may not be commonly viewed as a pedagogical tool or accorded traditional forms of value in academe. However, it is a tool for rapidly spreading knowledge and its reach is hard to ignore in current society. Social media has evolved our consumption of both information and entertainment; it has also changed our preferences on how to consume new information (Subramanian, 2018). The use of social media provides the greatest opportunity to distribute research findings to a wide audience and to affect social discourse both positively and negatively. The field of science communication is rich, filled with best practices for effective outcomes, including language, strategy, and design. We won’t address those strategies here, yet we do want to emphasize the need to use and engage with social media and to view it as a platform for teaching. (For further reading on science communication, we recommend Laura Bowater & Kay Yeoman’s Science Communication: A Practical Guide for Scientists, New York: Wiley, 2012.)

In Conclusion: Extension Is a Bridge

Extension activities should be viewed as a bridge to enhancing and expanding the reach of research-based evidence and technical information from members of academe to stakeholders in need. Faculty who hold Extension appointments should funnel energy into sharing their findings to the betterment of society. Many grants and funding opportunities require a broader impact statement, outreach, expected outcomes, and evaluation component and approach. This is where Extension professionals should shine and can use their expertise to develop methods for reaching and educating the audience where the findings will be most impactful. The “traditional” researcher may overlook this area of importance, but many funding agencies are placing higher priority on proposals that address how the grant will impact or improve the affected stakeholders. The next chapter, “Program Planning for Community Engagement and Broader Impacts,” will further discuss how to develop and translate knowledge to benefit stakeholders.

Powerful and impactful teaching is rarely confined to the classroom. The Extension system and nonformal education are valuable for early career faculty members and graduate students. We hope that you will integrate the educational approaches from nonformal educational settings into your classroom and engage your learners with issues relevant to our communities.

Not every reader will be an Extension specialist or a county-based Extension professional (a.k.a., Agent), nor will every reader even work at an LGU. However, all faculty have the motivation, if not the obligation, to share findings from your research agenda to the public. Many times this outreach is labeled as “broader impacts” (Donovan, 2019). We hope this chapter helps you see how your teaching and research can become integral to your community. If you are a graduate student seeking a position in higher-education, we hope this chapter has raised your interest in Extension education at LGUs or in developing better ways to communicate your ideas about how to bring community-relevant research and teaching to your research agenda.

If you are reading this while working or studying at a LGU institution we hope this chapter has raised your awareness of the mission of your institution, and that you will seek out Extension professionals to help you in your teaching, research, and outreach efforts. If you do become an Extension specialist, or a county-based 4-H professional, congratulations! You are in for a challenging and rewarding career. We hope this chapter serves as a framework for conducting excellent Extension education programming and provides a greater awareness of the organization’s beginnings, the theory that frames the work, and some basic practices of non-formal education that you can use to maximize community outreach efforts.

Reflection Questions

  • When you think about your research and teaching, what public issues do you see yourself ready to contribute solutions and education?
  • After reviewing Figure 2, how are you using an array of mediums to share content? Where can you improve your efforts?

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Fields, N. I. (2020). Exploring the 4-H Thriving Model: A Commentary Through an Equity Lens. Journal of Youth Development , 15(6), 171-194. https://doi.org/10.5195/jyd.2020.1058 .

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Ilvento, T. W. (1997). Expanding the role and function of the Extension system in the university setting. Agricultural and Resource Economics Review , 26, 153–165. doi: 10.1017/S1068280500002628 .

Jackson, D. G., & Johnson, L. (1999). When to look a gift horse in the mouth. Journal of Extension . 37(4), Article 4COM2. https://www.joe.org/joe/1999august/comm2.php .

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Lee, J. M., & Keys, S. W. (2013). Land-grant but unequal: State one-to-one match funding for 1890 land-grant universities. APLU Office of Access and Success publication , (3000-PB1).

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Figure and Table Attributions

  • Figure 10.1 Adapted under fair use from USDA NIFA 2019. Graphic by Kindred Grey.
  • Figure 10.2 Kindred Grey. CC BY 4.0.
  • Table 10.1 adapted from Balakrishnan, S. (2020). The adult learner in higher education: A critical review of theories and applications. In Accessibility and Diversity in the 21st Century University (pp. 250-263). IGI Global. doi: 10.4018/978-1-7998-2783-2.ch013
  • How to cite this book chapter: Elliott-Engel, J., Crist, C., and James, G. 2022. The Power of Extension: Research, Teaching, and Outreach for Broader Impacts. In: Westfall-Rudd, D., Vengrin, C., and Elliott-Engel, J. (eds.) Teaching in the University: Learning from Graduate Students and Early-Career Faculty . Blacksburg: Virginia Tech College of Agriculture and Life Sciences . https://doi.org/10.21061/universityteaching License: CC BY-NC 4.0. ↵

Teaching in the University Copyright © 2022 by Jeremy Elliott-Engel; Courtney Crist; and Gordon Jones is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education

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INDIAN RESEARCH JOURNAL OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

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ISSN: 0972-2181 (Print), 0976-1071 (Online)

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Volume 24, No. 1, January - March, 2024

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Kausik Pradhan and Jitendra Kumar Chauhan and Bablu Ganguly

V. Jyothi and B. Vijayabhinandana

Bhavana Sajeev and Mercykutty M.J.

Sharmistha Swayamprava, Hiba Meeyo, Pallavi Shaktawat and Mahesh B. Tengli

Tadepalli Yamini, P. Venkatesan, V. Jyothi, M. Rama Devy, V. Srinivasa Rao and K. Suseela

S. Barman, N. Borah, S. Kalita, A. Das, R. Phukan, S. Mahanta and B. Deka

Bikram Barman, Asif Mohammad, Upali Kisku, Chimi Yangzom Lepcha

Pallavi Shaktawat, Mahesh B. Tengli, R.J. Singh, S. Swayamprava and M.S. Singh

Anika Ashrafi, Mohammad Bashir Ahmed, Md. Yasin Ali, Manas Mohan Adhikary and Md. Ruhul Amin

Jagat Jyoti Baruah, Pallabi Bora, Jitendra Kumar Chauhan, Deepali Suryawanshi, Pallavi Das and Maitrayee Dutta

Sahithi Pasupuleti, Vinayak Nikam, Sitaram Bishnoi, Kumbhare NV

P. Venkata Subbaiah

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Sumita Acharya, Madhusmita Sahoo, A.P. Nayak and S.N. Mishra

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Extension education: research and application.

research paper on extension education

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After reading this article you will learn about:- 1. Research in Extension Education 2. Application of Extension Education 3. Extension Education Institutes.

Research in Extension Education :

To undertake research on various facets of extension with a view to enriching programme formulation and operation, and to develop new methodology and approach for speedy transfer of new technology to farm and farm homes.

Extension of the Agricultural University has to be research oriented and shall perform mainly the following functions :

(i) Conduct survey and pinpoint farmers’ problems for research,

(ii) Conduct adaptive/on-farm trial with advance research materials in farmers’ fields,

(iii) Conduct frontline demonstrations in farmers’ fields on the technologies recommended by research,

(iv) Provide advisory service to the farmers of the area,

(v) Conduct training programmes for farmers and extension agents,

(vi) Provide information communication support for extension work, and

(vii) Evaluate the extent to which the project work has been successful and identify deficiencies and problems for further research.

Application of Extension Education :

The field extension work of the Agricultural Universities are designed to :

(i) Plan, organize and conduct production and problem oriented training of various types and durations for extension personnel;

(ii) Collect, process and disseminate latest research findings to extension personnel and extension clientele through appropriate methods and media;

(iii) Produce information materials and teaching aids for extension personnel, trainers and farmers;

(iv) Carry out limited frontline demonstrations based on latest research findings and to identify field problems as feedback to research departments; and

(v) Provide effective farm advisory service to farmers, farm youth, extension personnel, bankers, input dealers and manufacturers, voluntary farm organizations and others concerned with agricultural development.

Extension Education Institutes :

To cater to the extension education and training needs of the large number of extension professionals in the country, four Extension Education Institutes (EEIs) were established in India at the regional levels.

These were: Nilokheri in Haryana (1959), Anand in Gujarat (1962), Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh (1962), and Jorhat in Assam (1987). Though some of the institutes were independently set up, these were subsequently integrated with the Agricultural University system of the States.

The EEIs are primarily trainers’ training centres, to upgrade skills and competence of rural development extension personnel by imparting training in extension methods, media of communication and in related disciplines. The methods are on-and off-campus training and conduct of workshop, seminar etc.

With the introduction of the Training and Visit system of agricultural extension, the importance of management in extension was felt. This led to the setting up of the National Institute of Agricultural Extension Management (MANAGE) at Hyderabad in 1986.

The mission of the institute is to facilitate the extension officers, managers, scientists and administrators in all sectors of agricultural economy to acquire managerial and technical skills that would enable them to provide most effective support and services to farmers and fishermen for practising sustainable agriculture. The institute aimed to promote effective management of the agricultural extension system of the country through consultancy, training, research, information and documentation.

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Trends and Challenges in Nigerian Extension Education and Research

Profile image of SANI Yakubu Gombe

Research in extension education is a serious and challenging task facing Nigeria today because of new trends that keeps on emerging continuously. This paper seeks to examine some of the common research techniques used in extension education and describe their applicability and workability in helping people to help themselves. Most of the researches in this area are more theoretical than the practical nature of the actual extension practice. The general aim of the paper is to identify the emerging trends and how these trends pose additional challenges to extension research and practice. Two major research approaches, Participatory Action Research in Extension (PARE) and Community Based Research (CBR) were found to be encouraging community members to make good decisions on what they feel is better for their lives. This implies that the methods are very useful, relevant and can considerably increase the community effectiveness with enduring by the researchers’ to employ them despite th...

Related Papers

SANI Yakubu Gombe

Over time extension education is supply-driven with little or no consultation with the community members, participants, clients or partners whom the innovation and other related empowerment activities is intended. The linear model of community empowerment of top-down approach has been the dominant process of holistic sustainable development in Nigeria, resulting in failed processes towards ensuring self-dependence economically, socially, psychologically and politically. Recently, community driven development (CDD) have come to be considered as most appropriate towards sustainable community empowerment. Utilization of these techniques by the extension educators was found to have increases the community members' knowledge and ability to make their own choices and decisions on each and every developmental program and projects. Community members assumed a central role and become key players in activities that will affect their lives such as: needs assessment, planning, implementation, supervision, monitoring and evaluation of projects. This paper examined the roles of extension education towards community empowerment in Nigeria: issues, challenges and prospects. These issues and challenges include political system, gender, population, funding, training and retraining , competencies and manpower. The paper also recommends government proactive measure in terms of legislation, funding and more employment and also the communities to form self-help groups as a way of empowering themselves internally in collaboration with the extension workers working with them.

research paper on extension education

Conference Paper

The paper examines innovations in extension education programmes in Nigeria towards attainment of holistic community development within the provisions of global best practices. Using thematic and critical review approach, the paper provides clarification on innovations, extension education and global best practices as concepts. History of extension education globally and the emergence of extension education in Nigeria was traced and discussed. The paper also identifies and explains the philosophy and principles of extension education citing some examples of innovations in Nigeria. The paper also pinpoints the types/Branches of extension education, challenges and prospects of extension education programmes in Nigeria.. The paper concludes that innovations in extension education programmes are necessary to enable overcoming the effects of individual differences which also allows for holistic community development. The paper recommends for government and other concerned individuals to vigorously key into extension education programmes that facilitate creativity and adoption of innovations that are directly related to solving immediate needs of the clientele and their communities.

Journal of social sciences review

Kaothar IDRIS-ADENIYI

Journal of Management and Science

Olajide Kolawole

This study was carried out to evaluate the community-based participatory extension approach in Okehi Local Government Area of Kogi State. The specific objectives were to examine the socio-economic profile of the farmers, level of participation, effectiveness of the PEA model in addressing farmers technological needs and problems militating against effective operation. Data were collected using structured interview schedule from 60 respondents who were randomly selected. The data collected were analyzed by the use of descriptive statistics such as tables, percentages frequencies and means. The Result from the analysis showed that 60 percent were within (40-59years) which could be considered to be the age bracket for economically active population. The level of participation was found to be (65 percent). The study shows that the community-based participatory extension approach has positive effects in the area because production was higher after the intervention of PEA model. The major...

International Journal of Scientific Research in Science, Engineering and Technology

International Journal of Scientific Research in Science, Engineering and Technology IJSRSET

The study was carried out to assess the extension education needs of crop farmers in Ido local government area of Oyo state. The data were collected using multi-stage techniques to select the sample size of 145 respondents. It assessed the socio-economic characteristics of the respondents, their level of awareness in the study area. The data were subjected to descriptive (percentage, frequency and mean) and inferential (chi-square and correlation) statistics. The study showed that most (66.2%) of the respondents were male whose ages range between 30 and 50 years. also, majority (77.9%) were married with household size of between 5-14. Additionally, 50.3% of the respondents were illiterates with years of farming experience of 5 years and above, 50.4% have farm size of above 15 acres of land. The result showed a low respondents’ level of awareness about extension activities in the study area. It is therefore recommended that farmers adult literacy education programmes should be organize to help the farmers.

Anas Haruna

The study assessed farmers’ perception for effective extension teaching methods in Niger State. The specific objectives were to describe the socioeconomic characteristics of farmers in the study area, identify the extension teaching methods used by extension agents in and examine the farmers’ perception of effectiveness of the extension teaching methods. Multi-stage sampling technique was used for this study. A total of 114 respondents were randomly selected from Badeggi, and Katcha in Katcha LGA, Dangana and Bida in Bida LGA. Data was collected with the aid of structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics such as frequency and percentages and Mean scores was used to analyze objectives. The majority of the farmers (39.5%) were between ages of 20-29. The mean age was 31 years. The findings also showed that the majority (60.5%) of the respondents were male. The majority (50%) of the farmers were married, most (42.1%) had farming experience of 1-10 with a mean of 12 years. Results ...

International Journal of Agricultural and Rural Development,

Chinwoke C IFEANYI-OBI

This study assessed farmers' participation in agricultural extension intervention programmes in the Northeastern zone of Nigeria. Structured questionnaire was used to elicit information from six-hundred randomly selected respondents from Ogun and Osun States. Descriptive statistics such as frequency count, means and percentages were used to analyze the data collected. Chi-square was used to determine the relationship between the socioeconomic variables and level of participation of farmers. Results showed that farmers' participation in extension intervention programmes was generally low. Also, major hindrance to participation include poor involvement of people at the conception stage, inadequate extension agent, inadequate training, lack of programme continuity, poverty, institutional factors, heterogeneity factors, extension agency factors, community factors and socio-psychological factors in order of seriousness. Socioeconomic factors found to influence farmers' level of participation include age (X 2 =5.57; p<0.05), education (X 2 =6.53; p<0.05), secondary occupation (X 2 =2.45; p<0.05), farming experience (X 2 =4.91; p<0.05), membership of farmers' association (X 2 =5.41; p<0.05), and income (X 2 =3.39; p<0.05). The study recommended a shift from the traditional supply-driven extension to a more participatory one which involves farmers from the conception stage. Also, more extension workers should be employed as facilitators to effectively cover the communities for increased participation.

Nigerian Journal of Rural Extension and Development

Fadlullah ISSA , Danjuma Kezi

This study assessed farmers' participation in agricultural extension intervention programmes in the Northwestern zone of Nigeria. Structured, pretested and validated interview schedule was used to collect data from 600 respondents selected in Kaduna and Kano States through multi-stage random sampling techniques. Frequency table, percentages, and weighted mean were used to analyze the data. Chi-square was used to determine the relationship between farmers' socioeconomic variables and their level of participation. Results showed that farmers' participation in extension intervention programmes was generally low. In order of severity, major hindrances to participation include poor involvement of people at the conception stage, lack of continuity, inadequate training, and inadequate extension agent. Socioeconomic factors found to influence farmers' level of participation include education (X 2 =6.92; p<0.05), membership of farmers' association (X 2 =6.18; p<0.05), age (X 2 =6.12; p<0.05), farming experience (X 2 =5.64; p<0.05), income (X 2 =4.61; p<0.05), benefits of association membership (X 2 =3.41; p<0.05), and secondary occupation (X 2 =3.13; p<0.05). The study recommended a shift from the traditional supply-driven extension to a more participatory one which involves farmers from the conception stage.

james simpa

This study examined the educational needs and factors influencing the food security status of Nigerian small-scale farmers using Nasarawa State as a case study. Structured questionnaire and a multi-stage random sampling technique were used in collecting data from 100 respondents from four villages in two Local Government Areas of Nasarawa State. Descriptive statistic and logit model were used to analyse the data. The results showed that the leading educational needs of the farmers include adoption of modern technology, environmental management and pests and diseases control, but farmers’ education is facing constraints of inadequacy of trained extension agents, lack of logistic and fund and insufficient subject matter specialists. About forty-three percent (43%) of households are food insecure. Household size, economic asset, non-farm income and stocking of food negatively and significantly influenced the farmer’s food security status while remittance, savings and number of adults in a household significantly and positively influenced it. The study concluded that Nigerian small-scale farmers need effective training using most preferred extension teaching methods and significant factors influencing food security status should be manipulated to achieve food security. Young educated graduates should be encouraged to take up farming profession by providing them with the right agricultural education, credit facilities and effective extension service delivery for the nation to achieve food security. Keywords: extension education, food security, logit model

Asian Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development

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Indian Journal of Extension Education is the Official publication of Indian Society of Extension Education (ISEE). It publishes original research papers in the field of extension education and allied fields.

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The ‘ INTRODUCTION ’ part should be brief and limited to the statement of the importance of the study, problem or the aim of the experiment. It should briefly justify the research and specify the hypotheses to be tested. The review of literature should be pertinent to the problem. Objective of the study should be discussed in view of latest references. No trade name should be used and Industrial products should be referred to by their chemical names (give ingredients in parentheses) at first mention. In the absence of a common name, use the full name or a defined abbreviation, in preference to a trade name. Introduction should be between 450 to 500 words.

The’ METHODOLOGY ’ should contain relevant details including experimental design and the techniques employed. Where the methods are well known, the citation of a standard work is sufficient. All modifications of procedures must be explained. Experimental materials and statistical models should be described clearly and fully. Calculations and the validity of deductions made from them should be checked and validated. Units of measurement, symbols and standard abbreviations should conform to international standards. Metric measurements are preferred, and dosages should be expressed entirely in metric units (SI units). Give the meaning of all symbols immediately after the equation in which they are first used. METHODOLOGY should be between 300 to 450 words. There must not be table and figures in methodology and subheadings be avoided as far as possible.

The RESULTS AND DISCUSSION  separately  (1500-2500 words) should be precise enough and well supported by relevant researches. The results need to be discussed instead of presenting the tabular data in text. There must not be sub headings in Discussion; however, paragraphs may be there to discuss agendas separately. T he Discussion should be 500-600 words only. Please check that the thesis style of reporting results be avoided. Check it should be in the past tense. Results should be presented in tabular form and graphs when feasible but not both. The colour figures and plates are printed when information would be lost if reproduced in black and white. Mean result with the relevant standard errors should be presented rather than detailed data. The data should be so arranged that the tables would fit in the normal layout of the page. Self-explanatory tables should be typed on separate sheets and carry appropriate titles. The tabular matter should not exceed 20% of the text. Any abbreviation used in a table must be defined in that table. All tables should be cited in the text. If an explanation is necessary, use an abbreviation in the body of the table (e.g. ND) and explain clearly in footnotes what the abbreviation means. References to footnotes in a table are specified by superscript numbers, independently for each table. Superscript letters are used to designate statistical significance. Use a lower case p to indicate probability values (i.e. p<0.05). In general, use numerals, when two numbers appear adjacent to each other, spell out the first (i.e. three plants were selected rather than 3 plants were selected). In a series using some numbers less than 10 and some more than 10 use numerals for all (i.e. 2 splits, 6 plants were selected). Do not begin a sentence with a numeral. Spell it out or rearrange the sentence. Abbreviate the terms hour (h), minute (min) and second (sec) when used with a number in the text but spell them out when they are used alone. Do not use a hyphen to indicate inclusiveness (e.g. use 12 to 14 yr or wk 3 and 4 not 12-14 mg or wk 3-4). Use Arabic numerals with abbreviated units of measure: 2 g, 5 d, $4.00, 3% and numerical designations in the text: exp 1, group 3, etc. Figures (histogram/pie chart/ other type of charts) should be given in editable rich text material with the backup data file. The image of the figure or jpg/jpeg is not allowed.The paper should always be written in third person form (Avoid I / We / Research Team / Project Team etc.).There is always a different style for paper writing and thesis writing, try to be precise enough without compromising the quality. Avoid too many paragraphs; one concept must be dealt at one place and time in one paragraph. Avoid presenting the same data in text, table, and figures in verbatim. Avoid making too many tables just for the number sake, also avoid giving socio personal profile till it is utmost necessary and has some bearing on the other part of the research (most times it is not so).

The DISCUSSION should relate to the limitations or advantage of the author’s experiments in comparison with the work of others.

The ‘ CONCLUSION ’ section should not be of more than one paragraph after the discussion and explain in general terms the implications of findings of this research. Abbreviations, acronyms, or citations should not be used here.

REFERENCES lists should be typed in alphabetical order. The reference list should be first sorted alphabetically by author(s) and secondly chronologically. A recent issue of the journal should be consulted for the methods of citation of REFERENCES in the text as well as at the end of the article.

Kindly ensure  a minimum of three references from previous issues of IJEE from epubs only · There must be at least 15 references from the related research. It is appreciable if the references are from Social Science/ Extension Education/ Communication/ Entrepreneurship/ Management/ Education related journals. References should not be abbreviated especially the journal name (as per IJEE style). Check capitalization Vs sentence case properly. In references, the ‘&’ should be used instead of ‘and’ before the last author name, whereas in the text it should be ‘and’. The word ‘et al’ must not be in italics in the text. The reference, in general, should not be older than 15 years and should be from published sources only. Avoid unpublished thesis (older than five years) references. Wherever possible insist on providing the URL of the reference. Unauthenticated references should lead to the rejection of the manuscript.

Indian Journal of Extension Education follows common APA Style references and citations in the text. For more information on references and reference examples, see Chapters 8, 9 and 10 of the Publication Manual as well as the Concise Guide to APA Style (7th ed.). Also, see the Reference Examples pages on the APA Style website. Few examples are of reference section as well as text citations are given below:

Reference Section

Including minimum of three references from previous issues of IJEE is desirable· There must be at least 15 references from the related researches. It is appreciable if the references are from Social Science/ Extension Education/ Communication/ Entrepreneurship/ Management/ Education related journals. The reference, in general, should not be older than 15 years and should be from published sources only. Avoid unpublished thesis (older than five years) references. Wherever possible provide the URL of the reference. Unauthenticated references will lead to rejection of article Indian Journal of Extension Education follows common APA Style references and citation in text. Journal name should never be abbreviated. For more information on references and reference examples, see Chapters 8, 9 and 10 of the Publication Manual as well as the Concise Guide to APA Style (7th ed.). Also see the Reference Examples pages on the APA Style website. Few examples are of reference section as well as text citation are given below:

a) Journal Articles

Lachner, A., Backfisch, I., Hoogerheide, V., van Gog, T., & Renkl, A. (2020). Timing matters! Explaining between study phases enhances students’ learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(4), 841–853. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000396

b) Online Magazine Article

Gander, K. (2020, April 29). COVID-19 vaccine being developed in Australia raises antibodies to neutralize virus in pre-clinical tests. Newsweek. https://www.newsweek.com/australia-covid-19-vaccine-neutralize-virus-1500849

c) Print Magazine Article

Nicholl, K. (2020, May). A royal spark. Vanity Fair, 62(5), 56–65, 100.

e) Print Newspaper Article

Reynolds, G. (2019, April 9). Different strokes for athletic hearts. The New York Times,D4.

f) Blog Post

Rutledge, P. (2019, March 11). The upside of social media. The Media Psychology Blog. https://www.pamelarutledge.com/2019/03/11/the-upside-of-social-media/

g) Authored Book

Kaufman, K. A., Glass, C. R., & Pineau, T. R. (2018). Mindful sport performance enhancement: Mental training for athletes and coaches. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000048-000

h) Edited Book Chapter

Zeleke, W. A., Hughes, T. L., & Drozda, N. (2020). Home–school collaboration to promote mind–body health. In C. Maykel & M. A. Bray (Eds.), Promoting mind–body health in schools: Interventions for mental health professionals (pp. 11–26). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000157-002

i) Online Dictionary Entry

American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Internet addiction. In APA dictionary of psychology. Retrieved April 24, 2020, from https://dictionary.apa.org/internet-addiction

j) Report by a Group Author

World Health Organization. (2014). Comprehensive implementation plan on maternal, infant and young child nutrition. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/113048/WHO_NMH_NHD_14.1_ eng.pdf?ua=1

k) Report by Individual Authors

Winthrop, R., Ziegler, L., Handa, R., & Fakoya, F. (2019). How playful learning can help leapfrog progress in education., Center for Universal Education at Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/how_playful_learning_can_help_leapfrog_progress_in_education.pdf

l) Press Release

American Psychological Association. (2020, March 2). APA reaffirms psychologists’ role in combating climate change [Press release]. https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2020/03/combating-climate-change

m) Conference Session

Davidson, R. J. (2019, August 8–11). Well-being is a skill [Conference session]. APA 2019 Convention, Chicago,IL, United States. https://irp-cdn.multiscreensite.com/a5ea5d51/files/uploaded/APA2019_ Program_190708.pdf

n) Dissertation From a Database (Section 10.6)

Horvath-Plyman, M. (2018). Social media and the college student journey: An examination of how social media use impacts social capital and affects college choice, access, and transition (Publication No. 10937367) [Doctoral dissertation, New York University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.

o) Preprint Article (Section 10.6)

Latimier, A., Peyre, H., & Ramus, F. (2020). A meta-analytic review of the benefit of spacing out retrieval practice episodes on retention. PsyArXiv. https://psyarxiv.com/kzy7u/

p) Data Set

O’Donohue, W. (2017). Content analysis of undergraduate psychology textbooks (ICPSR 21600; Version V1) [Data set]. Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research. https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR36966.v1

q) Film or Video

Doctor, P., & Del Carmen, R. (Directors). (2015). Inside out [Film]. Walt Disney Pictures; Pixar Animation Studios.

r) TV Series Episode

Dippold, K. (Writer), & Trim, M. (Director). (2011, April 14). Fancy party (Season 3, Episode 9) [TV series episode]. In G. Daniels, H. Klein, D. Miner, & M. Schur (Executive Producers), Parks and recreation. Deedle-Dee Productions; Fremulon; 3 Arts Entertainment; Universal Media Studios.

Kamin, H. S., Lee, C. L., & McAdoo, T. L. (2020). Creating references using seventh edition APA Style [Webinar]. American Psychological Association. https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/tutorials-webinars

t) YouTube Video

Above The Noise. (2017, October 18). Can procrastination be a good thing? [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FQMwmBNNOnQ

u) Song or Track

Nirvana. (1991). Smells like teen spirit [Song]. On Nevermind. DGC.

v) Radio Broadcast

Hersher, R. (2020, March 19). Spring starts today all over America, which is weird [Radio broadcast]. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2020/03/19/817237429/spring-starts-today-all-over america-which-is-weird3

Podcast Episode (Section 10.13)

Santos, L. (Host). (n.d.). Psychopaths and superheroes (No. 1) [Audio podcast episode]. In The happiness lab with Dr. Laurie Santos. Pushkin Industries. https://www.happinesslab.fm/season-2-episodes/episode-1

Infographic (Section 10.14)

American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Data sharing [Infographic]. https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/data-sharing-infographic.pdf

PowerPoint From a Classroom Website (Section 10.14)

Mack, R., & Spake, G. (2018). Citing open source images and formatting references for presentations [PowerPoint slides]. Canvas@FNU. https://fnu.onelogin.com/login

Obama, B. [@BarackObama]. (2020, April 7). It’s World Health Day, and we owe a profound debt of gratitude to all our medical professionals. They’re still giving [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/ BarackObama/status/1247555328365023238

Open Educational Resource

Fagan, J. (2019, March 25). Nursing clinical brain. OER Commons. Retrieved January 7, 2020, from https://www.oercommons.org/authoring/53029-nursing-clinical-brain/view

Chandler, N. (2020, April 9). What’s the difference between Sasquatch and Bigfoot? howstuffworks. https://science.howstuffworks.com/science-vs-myth/strange-creatures/sasquatch-bigfoot-difference.html

Webpage on a News Website

Machado, J., & Turner, K. (2020, March 7). The future of feminism. Vox. https://www.vox.com/ identities/2020/3/7/21163193/international-womens-day-2020

Webpage With a Retrieval Date

Center for Systems Science and Engineering. (2020, May 6). COVID-19 dashboard by the Center for Systems Science and Engineering (CSSE) at Johns Hopkins University (JHU). Johns Hopkins University & Medicine, Coronavirus Resource Center. Retrieved May 6, 2020, from https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html

Citations in text

Layout Formats

General: Use Times New Roman font of size 12 point. The paragraph must be justified and separated from one another with a single space. Line spacing must be ‘Double’.

Page layout: Format your article so that it can be printed on A4 size paper with a provision of left right and top margin of 2.5 cm. The bottom margin must be 4 cm.

Major heading: All major heading (ABSTRACT, KEYWORDS, INTRODUCTION, METHODOLOGY, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND REFERENCES) should be in upper case or capital letters (14 point bold) ‘centre aligned’.

Sub-headings: Use font size of 12 point bold. To be typed on a separate line and ‘left aligned’ first letter of the first word to be in upper case (capital letter) and all other letters in lower case (small letter) e.g. Socio-economic and psychological characteristics.

Sub-sub headings: Use font size of 10 point bold, in italics and ‘left aligned’. To be typed in a separate line with use with left margin. The first letter of first word to be in upper case (capital letter) and all other letters in lower case (small letters)

Table formats: Tables have to be placed in the appropriate place in the text. They should be prepared using the Table facility of Microsoft Word. Tables must have a Table caption on the top of the Table. The first letter of the first word of the caption should be in upper case (capital letters) and all other letters in lower case (small letters). A research paper should not have more than seven Tables.

Graphic formats: Only computer generated charts of figures (as a part of Microsoft word or GIF of JPEG files) or photographs relevant to the contents of the paper will be accepted.

Acronomys: You have to spell out the acronym for its first occurrence followed by the acronym within parenthesis. Example: Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) or Training and visit (T & V).

Plagiarism: Authors must obtain permission to reproduce any copyright material, and include an acknowledgement of the source in their article. They should be aware that the unreferenced use of the published and unpublished ideas, writing or illustrations of others, or submission of a complete paper under a new authorship in a different or the same language, is plagiarism.

Other policies: Articles forwarded to the editor for publication are understood to be offered to the Indian Journal of Extension Education exclusively and the copyrights automatically stand transferred to Indian Society of Extension Education. It is also understood that the authors have obtained the approval of their department, faculty or institute in cases where such permission is necessary. The Editorial Board takes no responsibility for facts or opinions expressed in the Journal, which rests entirely with the authors thereof. Proof-correction should be in Track Change mode. All queries marked in the article should be answered. Proofs are supplied for a check-up of the correctness of type setting and facts. The proofs should be returned within 3 days. The alternation in authors name is not permitted at any later stage after the article is submitted to the Indian Journal of Extension Education.Article certificate:The article certificate duly signed by all the authors should be mailed in original to Chief Editor ISEE. In absence of article certificate it will not be published.

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COMMENTS

  1. PDF Developing Metrics for Effective Teaching in Extension Education: A

    education, provides direction for future effective teaching research in extension education. Particularly, this study assessed 142 behaviors, characteristics, and techniques considered indicative of effective teaching, to reduce the number of competencies and identify constructs of effective teaching in extension education.

  2. Journal of Extension Education

    The Journal of Extension Education (JEE) is a peer-reviewed open-access journal in the field of extension education published by the Extension Education Society (EES). The journal is published in both print and online versions. [ Print ISSN: 0971-3123; Online ISSN: 2456-1282 ]. The CODEN assigned to JEE is JEEOBM .

  3. PDF Concepts, Models, and Research of Extended Education

    In this paper, extended education in each country is categorized into three types based on their major concerns and conceptions about the purpose of the programs: a) child devel-opment-focused conception, b) role of the school-focused conception, and finally c) family reproduction-focused conception.

  4. (PDF) Extension and Continuing Education

    The main objective of this research paper is to understand the meaning and significance of extension and continuing education. The extension education has been beneficial to the...

  5. Extension Education

    The extension research has led to evolution of various new fields, which include diffusion and adoption of innovations, communication and media, management and organizational development, documentation and validation of indigenous technical knowledge, entrepreneurship development, program evaluation and impact assessment, etc.

  6. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension

    The Journal of Agricultural Education & Extension sees as the purposes of agricultural education and extension to prepare students for leadership, management, and technical support roles, to further develop advisors and extension professionals, and to improve practices in the fields mentioned.

  7. The Power of Extension: Research, Teaching, and Outreach for Broader

    The Cooperative Extension System (CES) has a mission to translate research-based findings, best practices, and information in four broad program areas: youth development (4-H), agriculture and natural resources (ANR), family and consumer sciences (FCS), and community development (Seevers et al., 2007).

  8. Full article: Enhancing the role of rural agricultural extension

    This paper aimed to review studies on enhancing the role of rural agricultural extension programs in poverty alleviation. Various approaches and tools used in rural extension program delivery have been discussed, and ways in which their contribution to poverty alleviation can be enhanced have been highlighted.

  9. (PDF) Agricultural Extension Education

    This book covers altogether nine topics that deals with Education and its approaches, Extension Education, Basic learning principle and adult learning, Rural leadership development,...

  10. Full article: Empowering the community through the extension services

    The quality of the extension services provided determines how effective extension systems are in accomplishing a sustainable development strategy. Hence, this research was carried out to ascertain the impact of extension services of the College of Teacher Education (CTE) of Nueva Vizcaya State University (NVSU), Philippines.

  11. Agricultural & Extension Education Research Papers

    The varied use of the terms informal education, nonformal education, and formal education draw distinctions that serve to divide, not unite, those working to support a wide variety of learners for similar agriscience education goals. What in Extension education is nonformal learning is informal learning in science education.

  12. Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education

    Jefferson D. Miller, Abby Davis, Kobina D. Fanyinkah, Alex McLeod, Casandra Cox, and K. Jill Rucker. The Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education is the official refereed publication of the Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education (AIAEE). Its purpose is to enhance the research and knowledge base ...

  13. CHAPTER ONE OVERVIEW OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

    1. Extension Education is an applied science consisting of content derived from research, accumulated field experiences and relevant principles drawn from the behavioural science synthesised with useful technology into a body of philosophy, principles, content and methods focused on the problems of out of school education for adults and youth.

  14. PDF RESEARCH PAPER IN EXTENSION EDUCATION) Abstract

    (research paper in extension education) Abstract A study was undertaken to carry out introspection and retrospection of research and development activities carried out by ICAR-

  15. PDF Strengthening Research-Education-Extension (R-E-E) Linkage in New

    This paper provides measures for improvements in government's strategy and policy to cope with major drawbacks in ... Inefficient coordination among research, extension and education has been indicated (Paudel, Bhattarai and Subedi, 2016), however, collaboration and work division between research and agricultural university is not clearly ...

  16. Trends and Challenges in Nigerian Extension Education and Research

    This paper seeks to examine some of the common research techniques used in extension education and describe their applicability and workability in helping people to help themselves. Most of the researches in this area are more theoretical than the practical nature of the actual extension practice.

  17. Indian Journal of Extension Education

    It publishes original research papers in the field of extension education and allied fields of national or international importance with distribution to librarians, universities, research centers, researchers in extension and Agriculture science.

  18. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension

    The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, Volume 29, Issue 5 (2023) See all volumes and issues. Volume 29, 2023 Vol 28, 2022 Vol 27, 2021 Vol 26, 2020 Vol 25, 2019 Vol 24, 2018 Vol 23, 2017 Vol 22, 2016 Vol 21, 2015 Vol 20, 2014 Vol 19, 2013 Vol 18, 2012 Vol 17, 2011 Vol 16, 2010 Vol 15, 2009 Vol 14, 2008 Vol 13, 2007 Vol 12, 2006 ...

  19. Irjee

    INDIAN RESEARCH JOURNAL OF EXTENSION EDUCATION Volume 24, No. 1, January - March, 2024 Table of Content Article Heeding the Euphony of Agricultural Information System Network (AISN) in the Eastern Region of India: A Social Network Analysis (SNA) Study Kausik Pradhan and Jitendra Kumar Chauhan and Bablu Ganguly PDF 1 - 11

  20. Extension Education: Research and Application

    ADVERTISEMENTS: After reading this article you will learn about:- 1. Research in Extension Education 2. Application of Extension Education 3. Extension Education Institutes. Research in Extension Education: To undertake research on various facets of extension with a view to enriching programme formulation and operation, and to develop new methodology and approach for speedy transfer of […]

  21. Trends in Extension Research in India-a Case Study

    The present study outlines the trends in extension research of two leading Agricultural Institutes viz. ICAR-IARI, New Delhi and GBPUAT, Pantnagar based on indepth review of M.Sc. and Ph.D....

  22. Trends and Challenges in Nigerian Extension Education and Research

    Research in extension education is a serious and challenging task facing Nigeria today because of new trends that keeps on emerging continuously. This paper seeks to examine some of the common research techniques used in extension education and ... planning, implementation, supervision, monitoring and evaluation of projects. This paper examined ...

  23. Author Guidelines

    Indian Journal of Extension Education is the Official publication of Indian Society of Extension Education (ISEE). It publishes original research papers in the field of extension education and allied fields. Submission of manuscript: Paper for publication should be submitted online on http://epubs.icar.org.in/ejournal/index.php/ijee.

  24. PDF Trends and Challenges in Nigerian Extension Education and Research

    ABSTRACT:- Research in extension education is a serious and challenging task facing Nigeria today because of new trends that keeps on emerging continuously. This paper seeks to examine some of the common research techniques used in extension education and describe their applicability and workability in helping people to help themselves.

  25. Public Accounts Committee Sitting. || 20th February 2024

    Public Accounts Committee Sitting. || 20th February 2024