How To Write A Sociology Research Paper Outline: Easy Guide With Template

Table of contents

  • 1 What Is A Sociology Research Paper?
  • 2 Sociology Paper Format
  • 3 Structure of the Sociology Paper
  • 4 Possible Sociology Paper Topics
  • 5.1 Sociology Research Paper Outline Example
  • 6 Sociology Research Paper Example

Writing a sociology research paper is mandatory in many universities and school classes, where students must properly present a relevant topic chosen with supporting evidence, exhaustive research, and new ways of understanding or explaining some author’s ideas. This type of paper is very common among political science majors and classes but can be assigned to almost every subject.

Learn about the key elements of a sociological paper and how to write an excellent piece.

Sociology papers require a certain structure and format to introduce the topic and key points of the research according to academic requirements. For those students struggling with this type of assignment, the following article will share some light on how to write a sociology research paper and create a sociology research paper outline, among other crucial points that must be addressed to design and write an outstanding piece.

With useful data about this common research paper, including topic ideas and a detailed outline, this guide will come in handy for all students and writers in need of writing an academic-worthy sociology paper.

What Is A Sociology Research Paper?

A sociology research paper is a specially written composition that showcases the writer’s knowledge on one or more sociology topics. Writing in sociology requires a certain level of knowledge and skills, such as critical thinking and cohesive writing, to be worthy of great academic recognition.

Furthermore, writing sociology papers have to follow a research paper type of structure to ensure the hypothesis and the rest of the ideas introduced in the research can be properly read and understood by teachers, peers, and readers in general.

Sociology research papers are commonly written following the format used in reports and are based on interviews, data, and text analysis. Writing a sociology paper requires students to perform unique research on a relevant topic (including the appropriate bibliography and different sources used such as books, websites, scientific journals, etc.), test a question or hypothesis that the paper will try to prove or deny, compare different sociologist’s points of view and how/why they state certain sayings and data, among other critical points.

A research paper in sociology also needs to apply the topic of current events, at least in some parts of the piece, in which writers must apply the theory to today’s scenarios. In addition to this, sociology research requires students to perform some kind of field research such as interviews, observational and participant research, and others.

Sociology research papers require a deep understanding of the subject and the ability to gather information from multiple sources. Therefore, many students seek help from experienced online essay writers to guide them through the research process and craft a compelling paper. With the help of a professional essay writer, students can craft a comprehensive sociology research paper outline to ensure they cover all the relevant points.

After explaining what this type of paper consists of, it is time to dive into one of the most searched questions online, “What format are sociology papers written in?”. Below you can find a detailed paragraph with all the information necessary.

Sociology Paper Format

A sociology paper format follows some standard requirements that can be seen on other types of papers as well. The format commonly used in college and other academic institutions consists of an appropriate citation style, which many professors ask for in the traditional APA format, but others can also require students to write in ASA style (very similar to APA, and the main difference is how you write the author’s name).

The citation is one of the major parts of any sociological research paper that needs to be understood perfectly and used according to the rules established by it. Failing to present a cohesive and correct citing format is very likely to cause the failure of the assignment.

As for the visual part of the paper, a neat and professional font is called for, and generally, the standard sociology paper outline is written in Times New Roman font (12pt and double spaced) with at least 1 inch of margin on both sides. If your professor did not specify which sociology format to use, it is safe to say that this one will be just fine for your delivery.

Sociology papers have a specific structure, just like other research pieces, which consist of an introduction , a body with respective paragraphs for each new idea, and a research conclusion . In the point below, you can find a detailed sociology research paper outline to help you write your statement as smoothly and professionally as possible.

Structure of the Sociology Paper

A traditional sociology research paper outline is based on a few key points that help present and develop the information and the writer’s skills properly. Below is a sociology research paper outline to start designing your project according to the standard requirements.

  • Introduction. In this first part, you should state the question or problem to be solved during the article. Including a hypothesis and supporting the claim relevant to the chosen field is recommended.
  • Literature review. Including the literature review is essential to a sociology research paper outline to present the authors and information used.
  • Methodology. A traditional outline for a sociology research paper includes the methodology used, in which writers should explain how they approach their research and the methods used. It gives credibility to their work and makes it more professional.
  • Outcomes & findings. Sociological research papers must include, after the methodology, the outcomes and findings to provide readers with a glimpse of what your paper resulted in. Graphics and tables are highly encouraged to use on this part.
  • Discussion. The discussion part of a sociological paper serves as an overall review of the research, how difficult it was, and what can be improved.
  • Conclusion. Finally, to close your sociology research paper outline, briefly mention the results obtained and do the last paragraph with the writer’s final words on the topic.
  • Bibliography. The bibliography should be the last page (or pages) included in the article but in different sheets than the paper (this means, if you finished your article in the middle of the page, the bibliography should start on a new separate one), in which sources must be cited according to the style chosen (APA, ASA, etc.).

This sociology research paper outline serves as a great guide for those who want to properly present a sociological piece worthy of academic recognition. Furthermore, to achieve a good grade, it is essential to choose a great topic.

Below you can find some sociology paper topics to help you decide how to begin writing yours.

Possible Sociology Paper Topics

To present a quality piece, choosing a relevant topic inside the sociological field is essential. Here you can find unique sociology research paper topics that will make a great presentation.

  • Relationship Between Race and Class
  • How Ethnicity Affects Education
  • How Women Are Presented By The Media
  • Sexuality And Television
  • Youth And Technology: A Revision To Social Media
  • Technology vs. Food: Who Comes First?
  • How The Cinema Encourages Unreachable Standards
  • Adolescence And Sex
  • How Men And Women Are Treated Different In The Workplace
  • Anti-vaccination: A Civil Right Or Violation?

These sociology paper topics will serve as a starting point where students can conduct their own research and find their desired approach. Furthermore, these topics can be studied in various decades, which adds more value and data to the paper.

Writing a Great Sociology Research Paper Outline

If you’re searching for how to write a sociology research paper, this part will come in handy. A good sociology research paper must properly introduce the topic chosen while presenting supporting evidence, the methodology used, and the sources investigated, and to reach this level of academic excellence, the following information will provide a great starting point.

Three main sociology research paper outlines serve similar roles but differ in a few things. The traditional outline utilizes Roman numerals to itemize sections and formats the sub-headings with capital letters, later using Arabic numerals for the next layer. This one is great for those who already have an idea of what they’ll write about.

The second sample is the post-draft outline, where writers mix their innovative ideas and the actual paper’s outline. This second type of draft is ideal for those with a few semi-assembled ideas that need to be developed around the paper’s main idea. Naturally, a student will end up finding their way through the research and structuring the piece smoothly while writing it.

Lastly, the third type of outline is referred to as conceptual outline and serves as a visual representation of the text written. Similar to a conceptual map, this outline used big rectangles that include the key topics or headings of the paper, as well as circles that represent the sources used to support those headings. This one is perfect for those who need to visually see their paper assembled, and it can also be used to see which ideas need further development or supporting evidence.

Furthermore, to write a great sociology paper, the following tips will be of great help.

  • Introduction. An eye-catching introduction calls for an unknown or relevant fact that captivates the reader’s attention. Apart from conducting excellent research, students worthy of the highest academic score are those able to present the information properly and in a way that the audience will be interested in reading.
  • Body. The paragraphs presented must be written attractively, to make readers want to know more. It is important to explain theories and add supporting evidence to back up your sayings and ideas; empirical data is highly recommended to be added to give the research paper more depth and physical recognition. A great method is to start a paragraph presenting an idea or theory, develop the paragraph with supporting evidence and close it with findings or results. This way, readers can easily understand the idea and comprehend what you want to portray.
  • Conclusion. For the conclusion, it is highly important, to sum up the key points presented in the sociology research paper, and after doing so, professors always recommend adding further readings or suggested bibliography to help readers who are interested in continuing their education on the topic just read.

No matter the method you choose to plan out your sociological papers, you’ll need to cover a few bases of how to assemble your final draft. If you’re stuck on where to begin your work, you can always buy sociology research paper from professional writers. Many students go to the pros to shore up their grades and make time when deadlines become overwhelming. If you do it independently, double-check your assignment’s requirements and fit them into the following sections.

Sociology Research Paper Outline Example

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The following sociology research paper outline example will serve as an excellent guide and template which students can customize to fit their topics and key points. The outline above follows the topic “How Women Are Presented By The Media”.

Sociology Research Paper Example

PapersOwl website is an excellent resource if you’re looking for more detailed examples of sociology research papers. We provide a wide range of sample research papers that can serve as a guide and template for your own work.

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“Changing Demographics Customer Service to Millennials” Example

Students who structure their sociological papers before conducting in-depth research are more likely to succeed. This happens because it is easier and more efficient to research specific key points rather than diving into the topic without knowing how to approach it or presenting the information, data, statistics, and others found.

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How to Write Sociology Papers

Writing sociology papers.

Writing is one of the most difficult and most rewarding of all scholarly activities. Few of us, students or professors, find it easy to do. The pain of writing comes largely as a result of bad writing habits. No one can write a good paper in one draft on the night before the paper is due. The following steps will not guarantee a good paper, but they will eliminate the most common problems encountered in bad papers.

1. Select a topic early. Start thinking about topics as soon as the paper is assigned and get approval of your topic choice from the professor before starting the research on the paper. When choosing a topic, think critically. Remember that writing a good sociology paper starts with asking a good sociological question.

2. Give yourself adequate time to do the research. You will need time to think through the things you read or to explore the data you analyze. Also, things will go wrong and you will need time to recover. The one book or article which will help make your paper the best one you've ever done will be unavailable in the library and you have to wait for it to be recalled or to be found through interlibrary loan. Or perhaps the computer will crash and destroy a whole afternoon's work. These things happen to all writers. Allow enough time to finish your paper even if such things happen.

3. Work from an outline. Making an outline breaks the task down into smaller bits which do not seem as daunting. This allows you to keep an image of the whole in mind even while you work on the parts. You can show the outline to your professor and get advice while you are writing a paper rather than after you turn it in for a final grade.

4. Stick to the point. Each paper should contain one key idea which you can state in a sentence or paragraph. The paper will provide the argument and evidence to support that point. Papers should be compact with a strong thesis and a clear line of argument. Avoid digressions and padding.

5. Make more than one draft. First drafts are plagued with confusion, bad writing, omissions, and other errors. So are second drafts, but not to the same extent. Get someone else to read it. Even your roommate who has never had a sociology course may be able to point out unclear parts or mistakes you have missed. The best papers have been rewritten, in part or in whole, several times. Few first draft papers will receive high grades.

6. Proofread the final copy, correcting any typographical errors. A sloppily written, uncorrected paper sends a message that the writer does not care about his or her work. If the writer does not care about the paper, why should the reader?

Such rules may seem demanding and constricting, but they provide the liberation of self discipline. By choosing a topic, doing the research, and writing the paper you take control over a vital part of your own education. What you learn in the process, if you do it conscientiously, is far greater that what shows up in the paper or what is reflected in the grade.

EMPIRICAL RESEARCH PAPERS

Some papers have an empirical content that needs to be handled differently than a library research paper. Empirical papers report some original research. It may be based on participant observation, on secondary analysis of social surveys, or some other source. The outline below presents a general form that most articles published in sociology journals follow. You should get specific instructions from professors who assign empirical research papers.

1. Introduction and statement of the research question.

2. Review of previous research and theory.

3. Description of data collection including sample characteristics and the reliability and validity of techniques employed.

4. Presentation of the results of data analysis including explicit reference to the implications the data have for the research question.

5. Conclusion which ties the loose ends of the analysis back to the research question.

6. End notes (if any).

7. References cited in the paper.

Tables and displays of quantitative information should follow the rules set down by Tufte in the work listed below.

Tufte, Edward. 1983. The Visual Display of Quantitative Information . Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press. (lib QA 90 T93 1983)

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Tips for Writing Analytical Sociology Papers

This document is intended as an additional resource for undergraduate students taking sociology courses at UW. It is not intended to replace instructions from your professors and TAs. In all cases follow course-specific assignment instructions, and consult your TA or professor if you have questions.

  • DO NOT PLAGIARIZE!  You must cite all sources you use—not only for direct quotations, but also for data, for facts that are not common knowledge, and very importantly for ideas that are not your own.  The UW policy on academic honest explains what plagiarism is, but also the consequences for students found to have committed it: http://www.washington.edu/uaa/advising/help/academichonesty.php
  • It is generally expected that you state your argument (usually called a "thesis statement") in the first couple paragraphs (preferably the first). For theory application papers, this would include mention of the theory or argument you are applying and the case or empirical phenomenon to which you are applying it.
  • Introductions and conclusions are important: they are the first and last impression given to your readers. A good introduction summarizes what the author does in the paper, and sets up ("motivates") the analytical problem or question. It is sometimes referred to as a "roadmap" for the paper.  Some writers find it effective to present an interesting or controversial statement or a quote in the introduction to gain the reader's attention. However, you should make certain that the quote or information is actually relevant to your thesis (your main argument)!
  • A good conclusion almost always restates the argument and the evidence brought to bear.  This is not a place to introduce new evidence or make new claims.  However, you might address unresolved issues, why we should care about the topic of the paper, directions for future research, etc.
  • Once you have completed the paper, you should revisit the introduction and conclusion to make sure that they "match" each other, and that they reflect the argument you make in the body of the paper.
  • Most analytical sociology assignments should not rely upon personal anecdotes, experiences, or opinions as "data" to make an argument.  This varies by assignment—for example, some ask you to incorporate personal experiences and opinions.  If you are unsure, check with your instructor or TA.
  • It is considered appropriate to use subject headers in longer analytical papers, as it helps guide the reader and organize your argument.
  • Unless you are instructed otherwise, it can be helpful to write analytical papers in first person (using "I statements"): this helps you avoid passive constructions, wordiness, and confusion about voice (who is arguing what).  If your instructor prefers that you avoid the first person in your papers, you can write "This paper argues…" in order to distinguish your voice from that of the authors/theories/articles you discuss.
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How To Write A Sociology Research Paper Outline

Sociology can be both a very interesting topic, as well as a very confusing one. For those who are tasked with writing a sociology paper, there is a starting point that you must begin with:  Sociology research paper outline. Without this, you’re going to find it challenging to keep yourself (as well as your paper) on track. With that in mind, you can learn how to take the first step of writing a sociology paper.

What is a Sociology Research Paper?

Of course, if you want to write sociological papers, you’re going to need to look at both the writing aspect as well as the more in-depth understanding of the topic that you’ll be covering. If you find yourself worried and keep searching the internet for “ buy research paper online ,” relax. It’s simple. To make it easy to understand, we’ll look at the two parts.

The first ingredient, for a sociology research paper, is, of course, sociology. If you’re writing about it, it’s likely you know what the topic is already. However, we’ll go ahead and give it a concise definition:  Sociology is the study of human society. It covers how we developed it, the structure, and its crucial functions. That’s a very broad definition, but it’s all you need to know to get ready to write your sociology term paper.

The second part of this project is going to be the paper part. You’re likely as familiar with the definition of papers as you are with the meaning of sociology. In this instance, a concrete example of what you’ll need to provide is difficult. Most have the same basic makeup such as arguments along with supporting facts as well as the main thesis.

Sociology Paper Format

When writing in sociology class, whether it’s for a term paper or just a general essay, sociology paper will follow the same basic format:  An introduction, several body paragraphs, and a conclusion. For those wondering how to write a research summary , this is a secure place to start.

The introduction is where you’ll state to your reader the topic that you will be writing about. As well, you should give the purpose of the piece. Make the reason for the paper clear. It shouldn’t be dull; you need to keep it interesting, so they don’t zone out halfway through. It should also be informative. What good is a paper that doesn’t teach? If you’re worried about how to choose a topic for a research paper, it’s not as difficult as it seems. Simply searching for “research question sociology” can get you there. Even if it isn’t assigned, you can usually choose something involving.

The body paragraphs are what most would consider being “the paper.” This consists of multiple paragraphs and gives individual ideas along with the supporting evidence for them, which is what will make your sociology papers and their arguments strong. Each part should cover one topic and provide all of the information that the reader would need for it. Good investigations make it easy to understand what’s being written about, after all. There should be at least three, but not many more. You don’t want to lose their interest, after all!

The last part of your paper is going to be the conclusion. This is usually relatively brief but delivers the final consensus of your work. You should make it very plain focus readers’ attention on your findings, how your supporting evidence (found in the body paragraphs) led to it, and what it means. There should be no misunderstandings by the time the conclusion is finished.

Sociology Research Paper Outline Template

There are three types of sociology paper outline that you can use:  Traditional, conceptual, and post-draft. All of them are different and have their uses. Conceptual outlines are great for those who like to think outside of the box. Instead of just writing, you’re drawing! Here, a circle represents the source, a rectangle – the central theme, and a triangle – the conclusion. They are all interconnected with lines and arrows. A post-draft outline involves writing out what you want to cover on a piece of paper. Do this as the ideas come to you. Write how these are supported. You don’t have to worry about being orderly; just get everything down! Afterward, you can neatly arrange everything by bullet points. By far, the most widely used and best-known is what is called “the traditional outline.” Here, you break down the paper by the format you’ll be writing in. There is generally an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion. The body paragraphs contain both the main idea for the paragraph and the supporting information for it. Just like in your essay. Generally, it is presented as headings (such as Introduction, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusion shown below) with the numbered or lettered lists beneath them that contain the information needed. This is just a summary, so it should be condensed. You can be a bit lost with it as long as it makes sense to you. Since it’s the most widely used, that’s what we’ll focus on. You can see an example of one below.

Sociology Research Paper Outline Template

Introduction

  • What is the topic of your paper? What is the thesis statement or the main question? Make sure to include it here and to make it clear to the reader.
  • What do you intend to do in this paper? Are you arguing for or against something? Or are you simply informing the reader? You should state your intended purpose.

Body Paragraphs

  • This is where you will discuss your topic. Try to keep it clear and concise and not overly broad.
  • Include any information that supports the topic.
  • What is the summary of your paper? What, exactly, did you cover while writing it? Summarize it fairly, but briefly. You don’t need to restate the entire thing!
  • What were your conclusions? Lay them out plainly, so that everyone can understand them. Make sure they were supported.

When it’s time to write your sociological paper outline, you need to put some thoughts and efforts into it. A good framework will keep your writing on track; keep your information organized and in one place. Make everything step-by-step through the writing process until you can back up your findings at the end. With the right amount of planning ahead as well as work, you can turn a daunting task into the one that can be easily managed.

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Writing Your Analysis of A Social Problem Paper

Paper Structure

Your paper should be typed, double spaced, with a title and reference section . Cite your sources every time you use them in the paper.

Research papers should have an introduction, a body, and a conclusion :

1. Introduction : summarizes what you will write and puts it into context. Should consist of 3 parts:

  • "What You're Studying": start with a thesis statement about your social problem which includes background contextualizing it
  • "So What?": demonstrate why your social problem is important and why your reader should care about it
  • "Game Plan": outline the main points of your paper and the order in which you will address them

2. Body : presents the main points of the paper, with each paragraph representing one aspect of the paper's main focus. Prioritize and organize your main points and paragraphs to logically build your arguments to a compelling conclusion. Each paragraph should include a topic sentence, evidence, analysis, and a transition sentence:

  • The topic sentence summarizes the paragraph's main idea
  • Use evidence from your research sources to support or make the argument for your assertions about your main idea
  • Analyze your evidence to show how it links to your broader thesis
  • Include a transition sentence at the end of each paragraph to connect what you discussed in that paragraph with the main idea of the next paragraph

3. Conclusion : summarizes what you wrote and what you learned

  • Restate your thesis from the introduction in different words
  • Briefly summarize your main points or arguments and pull them together into the paper's main thesis
  • End with a strong, final statement that ties the whole paper together and makes it clear the paper has come to an end
  • No new ideas should be introduced in the conclusion, it should only review and analyze the main points from the body of the paper (with the exception of suggestions for further research)

4.  References list : a list of the sources you cited 

  • Cite your sources in APA or ASA Style
  • Format your References list in APA or ASA Style

For more writing help, contact  the Writing Center   and  make an online appointment  to meet with one of their consultants.

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An term paper examples on sociology is a prosaic composition of a small volume and free composition, expressing individual impressions and thoughts on a specific occasion or issue and obviously not claiming a definitive or exhaustive interpretation of the subject.

Some signs of sociology term paper:

  • the presence of a specific topic or question. A work devoted to the analysis of a wide range of problems in biology, by definition, cannot be performed in the genre of sociology term paper topic.
  • The term paper expresses individual impressions and thoughts on a specific occasion or issue, in this case, on sociology and does not knowingly pretend to a definitive or exhaustive interpretation of the subject.
  • As a rule, an essay suggests a new, subjectively colored word about something, such a work may have a philosophical, historical, biographical, journalistic, literary, critical, popular scientific or purely fiction character.
  • in the content of an term paper samples on sociology , first of all, the author’s personality is assessed - his worldview, thoughts and feelings.

The goal of an term paper in sociology is to develop such skills as independent creative thinking and writing out your own thoughts.

Writing an term paper is extremely useful, because it allows the author to learn to clearly and correctly formulate thoughts, structure information, use basic concepts, highlight causal relationships, illustrate experience with relevant examples, and substantiate his conclusions.

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Negative Impact of Media

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How to Write A Sociology Term Paper: Guidelines and 150 Topic Examples

How to Write a Sociology Term Paper: Key Recommendations and 150 Topic Examples

Table of contents.

Sociology Term Paper: Basic Notions and Types of the Paper Sociology Paper Formatting The Structure of a Flawless Sociology Term Paper Step-by-Step Guide to Writing a Sociology Term Paper Preparatory Stage Sociology Term Paper Outline Sociology Paper Writing Proofreading and Editing the First Draft Sociology Term Paper Topics: How to Make the Right Decision Sociology Term Paper on Family Term Paper Topics: Crime and Sociology Term Paper Ideas for Theory of Sociology Race and Ethnicity Sociology Term Paper Topics Medical Sociology Term Paper Topics Urban Sociology Term Paper Topics Conclusion

If you study Sociology, there is no way you will succeed without term paper writing. It is one of the mandatory types of academic assignments, where students should present their awareness of the field and the excellence of their writing skills. Even though the variety of sociology topics is impressive, the learner should make maximum effort to detect the most sensitive aspect that will help to showcase excellent knowledge, profound research skills, and flawless competence. 

As sociology term paper is a subtype of academic writing, it requires certain structure, format, and other elements. Therefore, working on the project, you should pay attention not only to the content of the essay but also to its form. Keep reading the article to find effective recommendations and tips that will give you a better understanding of how to set up a sociology term paper and succeed with its writing. 

Sociology Term Paper: Basic Notions and Types of the Paper

Before writing a sociology term paper, you should first find out the main peculiarities of the essay type. Pay due attention to the type of paper required, its structure, and formatting to make sure your final draft will meet the academic requirements. Once you are settled with the specifications of the work, you are ready to proceed to its writing. 

First of all, it is indispensable to remember that a sociology term paper is a scientific essay that is aimed at the analysis of a specific phenomenon. The main task of the writer is to provide readers with relevant information on a certain topic. Comprehensive analysis of relevant sources, including the scientific world, interviews, articles, and infographics, will help you make a reasonable thesis statement and prove your perspective.

What are the most critical characteristics of a successful sociology term paper? Consistency, relevance, and efficiency are the factors that will make your work relevant and worth attention. Students working on similar assignments should perform unique research on a specified topic, present a few points of view on the issue and make solid statements that will either prove or deny a selected perspective. 

Choosing a sociology term paper topic, one should make sure it is meaningful and up-to-date. Take your time to analyze the current situation, single out the most critical aspects and pick the one you want to talk about. At the same time, it is critical to note that the student should also be aware of different ideas on the same theme. Thus, you will have to work hard to analyze what famous scholars think and write about the aspect you want to discuss. 

Finally working on a sociology term paper, you should mind numerous types of data analysis that can be applied, including:

  • Quantitative
  • Ethnographic

Keep reading the article to find more information on the peculiarities of essay creation. Additionally, check out for impressive sociology term paper ideas that will advance the quality of your writing to a new level and will help you thrive with every single aspect of the writing. 

Sociology Paper Formatting

The overwhelming majority of college students are aware of the basic formatting styles that are used for different types of academic essays. Talking about sociology term papers, one should focus on the standard requirements applied to most papers. In most instances, essays on sociology are formatted in accordance with the requirements of the APA format:

  • Times New Romans, 12pt
  • Double-spaced
  • 1-inch margin

Additionally, you should double-check the specific requirements mentioned by the professor so that you comply with them. Stick to the citation format predetermined by the selected formatting style. Keep in mind that if you fail with this aspect of your sociology term paper writing, you risk getting a poor-quality text.

The Structure of a Flawless Sociology Term Paper

The student should mind the structure of the sociology term paper, as it will differ from other types of the academic world. A standard outline of the sociological research will include eight critical parts, each of them representing a meaningful aspect of the work. 

Remember that the structure of the sociology term paper may predetermine the scholarly significance of the essay and influence the mark you get for the work. Follow simple guidelines and stick to the rules that will guide you to the desired result. Here are the main constituents of a coherent and well-structured paper on sociology. 

Once you have selected a sociology term paper topic, you are ready to proceed to the analysis of the field, research, and conclusion-making. At this point, you should understand that although the abstract is the first part of the term paper, it should be the last to work on. This part of the work highlights the key ideas and perspectives presented in the essay. In short, it is a consistent and quick review of the term paper. 

Introduction

Interesting, appealing, and relevant are the words that should describe the introductory part of the Sociology term paper. The student should start with the question or problem under analysis. The hypothesis should also be included, followed by the relevant and meaningful claim, which will be further discussed. 

Literature Review

There is no way a college student comes up with a relevant sociology term paper without analyzing scientific works and articles. Therefore, the literature review is a must, which will contribute to the relevance of the work. 

Methodology

Next, you should provide readers with information about the methodology used for the achievement of the desired results. What instruments did you use to prove your perspective? What methods did you use to do research? Stay specific to add to the credibility of the paper and make it even more scholarly and influential. 

Outcomes and Findings

Infographics, tables, and other options should be actively used in this part of the paper. The main task here is to provide readers with information about the results of your research. Mention all the conclusions you made during the work and the aspects you wanted to highlight. 

This part of the work serves as a review of the research. Emphasize the difficulties and problems you faced during the process, specifying its weak and strong points, as well as the aspects that can be improved or changed. 

The final paragraph should not include any new information but rather sum up the facts that were mentioned in the previous parts. Reiterate the introductory passage, mention the results of the research, and comment on the topic under discussion. 

Bibliography

The last page of the term paper on sociology is a bibliography that should include detailed and properly formatted information about all the books, articles, and other works used in the essay. 

Step-by-Step Guide to Writing a Sociology Term Paper

Once you are aware of the main specifications and peculiarities of the Sociology term paper, you are ready to proceed to the next stage. Following the recommendations specified below, you will get a chance to opt for the best sociology term paper topic, create a well-structured outline and write a meaningful and credible essay.  

Preparatory Stage

The first and most significant point during the preparatory stage is the analysis of valid data sources and the selection of the sociology term paper topic. If you succeed with these undertakings, you advance your chances to thrive with essay creation. 

Take your time to research and analyze the available information, singling out one specific aspect you want to discuss in your work. Narrow down a broad theme and formulate a topic that will be relevant, interesting, and appealing. Avoid trivial themes that are widely discussed, as it will be challenging for you to find authentic data and facts that will be new to readers. 

Sociology Term Paper Outline

The next step of your writing process is creating the outline. In fact, it is a guidebook to flawless essay writing. Apart from the structural parts typical for the Sociology term paper, the student should not forget about the standard division of the text into the introduction, body, and conclusion. Check out a sample outline, which will give you a better understanding of what is expected from you. 

Introduction:

  • State the topic of your work.
  • Highlight the gaps in the analysis of the theme, which will prove the significance of your work.
  • Include a thesis statement to emphasize your perspective on the topic. 
  • Start every paragraph with a new idea. 
  • Make sure your passages are connected. 
  • The more arguments you have on the topic, the more paragraphs you will have to include in the work. 

Conclusion:

  • Reiterate the thesis statement. 
  • Point out the aspects that can be analyzed and studied in the future. 

Sociology Paper Writing

Are you done with the paper outline? Follow the guidelines to create a coherent and consistent paper that meets all the requirements. Mind the formatting and citation rules, use only relevant data sources and stay specific discussing a certain social phenomenon.

Proofreading and Editing the First Draft

Once your first draft is ready, you should take a few minutes to rest. Then, read the paper once again to detect minor typos and mistakes in the text. Eliminate any inaccuracies and errors that can affect the quality of the work. 

Sociology Term Paper Topics: How to Make the Right Decision

As it has already been mentioned before, striving to create an influential paper on Sociology, the student should make maximum effort to select a relevant and up-to-date theme. Browsing the web, you are likely to detect an unlimited variety of good topics for a sociology term paper. However, you should stay creative to select the one that seems the most relevant and meaningful. 

Do you feel lost among so many sociology research topics? It is the right time to get settled. Check out an extensive list of valid topics that will inspire you and help you detect the aspect you want to discuss.  

At this point, it is fundamental to mention that the choice of topics may be immense, but the principles of its selection remain the same. So, focus on the relevant issues that are important and appealing to you. Choose themes that are narrow, precise, and definite. 

Sociology Term Paper on Family

  • The Role of Family in the Development of the Child’s Personality
  • Needs and Requirements of the Up-to-Date Family
  • Responsible Children: The Role of Parents in Their Development
  • Single Parenting and Its Impact on the Future Society
  • The Importance of Child Support
  • The Outcomes of Divorce on the Children and Their Future Lives
  • The Way Infant Mortality Affects a Family
  • Religion and Nationality-Related Problems in Modern Families
  • Parental Neglect: Problems Caused by the Childhood Trauma
  • Domestic Violence and Its Impact on the Future Life of a Child
  • Homosexual Marriages: Peculiarities and Problems
  • The Role of Every Parent in the Family
  • Matriarchy in the Family and the Psychological Health of a Child
  • Family Therapy Sessions: Advantages and Downsides
  • Infidelity in Marriage: Most Common Reasons
  • The Social Difference between Small and Large Families
  • The Increase of the Divorce Rate in Recent Years
  • Financial Responsibility of a Family: Key Steps to Its Achievement
  • Siblings and Their Prominence 
  • Depression in a Family Member: Ways to Eliminate the Problem
  • Homeschooling: Social Downsides for the Child
  • Effective Ways for Parents to Help Their Kids Deal with Psychological Traumas
  • Perfect Family: Does It Exist?
  • Importance of Mutual Understanding and Help in Family
  • The Impact of Formal Education on the Contemporary Family

Term Paper Topics: Crime and Sociology

  • Age and Crime: Is There a Link Between Them?
  • Crimes Triggered by Substance Abuse
  • Childhood Sexual Abuse as a Reason for Teenage Crimes
  • Corporate Crime as a Growing Tendency
  • The Specifications of the Court Systems in Various Countries
  • Cybercrimes: Causes, Effects and Outcomes
  • The Concept of the Natural Legal Crime
  • Delinquent Subcultures and Their Impact on the Modern Communities
  • Criminal Justice System: Its Pros and Cons
  • Criminology Research Methods: The Way They Changed over the Years
  • Life Course Theory of Crime
  • Organized Crime and Punishment
  • Illegal Migration and Its Impact on the Crime Rate
  • Effective Ways of Youth Crime Prevention
  • Psychological Help for Perspective Criminals
  • How to Prevent the Increase of the Crime Rate: Tips and Guidelines
  • Key Characteristics of Crime and Criminal
  • Corporate Crimes: Who Are to Respond?
  • Victimless Crime: When Can the Notion Be Applied?
  • Capital Punishment and the Justice System
  • Aggressive Behavior and Crime: The Way They Are Related
  • Psychological Effects of Imprisonment
  • Legal Gun Possession and Crime Rate
  • Integrating Civil Laws and Decreased Crime Rates
  • Criminal Justice System and Race
Read also : Criminal justice term paper topics you may like

Term Paper Ideas for Theory of Sociology

  • Sociology: Peculiarities of the Study
  • Writing a Sociological Paper: How to Select the Best Topic
  • The Role of Sociology in Various Aspects of Human Lives
  • Basic Notions of Sociology
  • The History of Sociology Development
  • Sociological Research and Its Methods
  • Environmental Sociology: Features and Peculiarities
  • Sociology of Gender, Race, and Ethnical Group
  • Sociology and Media: The Connection between the Two
  • Methods and Instruments Used for Sociological Research
  • Types of Sociological Research
  • Top 5 Sociology-Related Myths of All Times
  • Race, Ethnicity, and Nationality as the Core Elements of Sociology as a Study
  • Class Inequalities as the Basic Topic of Sociological Researches
  • Sociological Perspective on the Gender Inequality
  • Sociology of Nationality: Why Is It Fundamental to Discuss?
  • Human Rights and Sociology: How Are the Notions Related?
  • Sociology of Gender: The Up-to-Date Issue
  • Branches of Sociology and Their Role in the Modern Society
  • Racial, Gender and Nationality Discrimination: The Problems Worth Discussion
  • Social Movements and Their Impact on the Advancement of the Study
  • Various Phases of Sociology Development
  • Social Learning Theory and Its Prominence for Modern People
  • Conflict Perspective as the Main Topic of the Recent Years
  • Sociological Theories and Their Role in the Study

Race and Ethnicity Sociology Term Paper Topics

  • Globalization and Ethnicity: The Connection between the Notions
  • Gender-Related Problems in the Modern Society
  • The Link between Ethnicity and Substance Abuse
  • Ethnicity and Poverty: Is There a Link?
  • Race and Ethnicity: What Is the Difference?
  • Migration and Unemployment Caused by Ethnicity-Related Issues
  • Ethnicity and Education Perspectives
  • 21st-Century Ethnicity and Gender Problems
  • Migration: Main Causes and Consequences
  • Prejudice Based on Religion, Gender, Race, and Ethnicity
  • The History of Racial Discrimination
  • The Culture, Religion, and Ethnicity of the Chinese 
  • Ethnicity: Social, Cultural, and Historical Aspects
  • Integration and Ethnicity: Various Aspects of the Question
  • Psychological Perspective on Culture and Ethnicity
  • Skin Color, Race and Ethnicity: Why Are They Important?
  • Islam and Its Concept of Ethnicity and Religion
  • Demographic Structure of the Up-to-Date Society
  • Socioeconomic, Cultural, and Ethnical Context Influencing Human Wellbeing
  • The Way Substance Abuse Is Related to Ethnicity
  • Ethnicity and Specifications of the Education around the World
  • Ethnicity and Racism: Key Differences and Similarities
  • Basic Ethnicity Problems in the US
  • The Impact of Race on the US History
  • Health Care Inequality Caused by Racial and Ethnicity Issues
Read also: Great topics and writing tips for your anthropology term paper

Medical Sociology Term Paper Topics

  • Challenges and Problems of Health Care in Urban Societies
  • Preferential Treatment: Causes, Peculiarities, and Consequences
  • The Attitude of the Society of Mental Health Patients
  • The Instances of Medical Negligence in Different Countries
  • The Cases of Sexual Harassment of Medical Staff on Patients
  • The Perception of Female Doctors
  • Rural Hospitals: The Challenges on the Medical System in the Areas
  • Innovative Approaches to Mental Health Treatment
  • Maternal Mortality Rate in Poor Countries
  • Vaccination and the Attitude of Society to It
  • Inequalities in Healthcare System: Preferred and Neglected Patients
  • Effective Ways to Purify Water
  • COVID-19 and Its Impact on Disabled People
  • Air Pollution and Cancer: The Link between Notions
  • Social Health Workers and Their Prominence for Different Types of Patients
  • Postpartum Depression and Its Impact on the Interaction with the Community
  • Euthanasia: Ethical Aspect of the Question
  • Effective Ways to Contribute to the Care for the Elderly
  • Top 10 Tips for Healthy Living
  • Teenage Pregnancy and Abortion
  • Effective Ways to Deal with Stress
  • Immunization and the Attitude of Society to It
  • Alcohol and Drug Abuse: The Problems Societies Suffer From
  • The Main Cause of Fast Aging
  • Obesity as the Aggravating Problem in the Modern Society

Urban Sociology Term Paper Topics

  • Urban People and Their Aura
  • The Innocence of the Villagers and Urban People Compared
  • The Discrepancy in the Parenting Model of Urban and Rural People
  • Money and Its Impact on the Mindset and Thinking Patterns of Urban People
  • Social Media and Its Influence on the Lives and Development of Urban Kids
  • The Role of Communities in Human Lives
  • Urban Sociology: The Basics of the Study and Its Peculiarities
  • Urban Poverty: Key Reasons and Outcomes
  • Most Critical Urban Problems in the Developing Society
  • Sociological Issues in Urban Life
  • The Link Between Urban Health and Lifestyle
  • Various Perspectives on Globalization
  • Neighborhood Environment and Its Impact on the Human Wellbeing
  • Neighborhood Context as a Reason for Aggression 
  • The Impact of Community on the Self-Esteem
  • The Basic Factors that Lead to the Drug Abuse
  • Types of Neighborhood and Its Role in the Personality Growth and Development
  • Community Change: Fundamental Factors to Mind
  • Emotional and Psychological Disorders Caused by Community Attitude
  • Neighborhood Effects: Problems and Issues Triggered by Them
  • Social Status and Its Role in the Human Development
  • Socioeconomic Status and Wellbeing of Youth
  • The Impact of Place on the Emotional Health
  • Advantages and Downsides of Urban Citizens
  • Socioeconomic Status and Its Peculiarities

Following simple guidelines and effective tips writing a sociology term paper will be much easier. However, it is still indispensable to mind the peculiarities of the term paper as academic work and its requirements. Excellent formatting, perfect structure, profound research, and excellent grammar may be overwhelming for most learners, especially the ones who are short of time. 

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Sociology Research Paper

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This sample sociology research paper features: 10800 words (approx. 36 pages), an outline, and a bibliography with 59 sources. Browse other research paper examples for more inspiration. If you need a thorough research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for help. This is how your paper can get an A! Feel free to contact our writing service for professional assistance. We offer high-quality assignments for reasonable rates.

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Introduction

The early sociology, the foundation of social science: statistical studies, the rise of american sociology, the substance of the sociological perspective, the passion for sociology, conclusion: the future of sociology.

  • Bibliography

A commonly accepted definition of sociology as a special science is that it is the study of social aggregates and groups in their institutional organization, of institutions and their organization, and of the causes and consequences of changes in institutions and social organization. (Albert J. Reiss, Jr. 1968:1)

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Within the contemporary context, sociologists are interested in human social interaction as people take one another into account as each behaves toward the other. Sociologists also take into analytical consideration the systemic units of interaction within social groups, social relations, and social organizations. As stated by Reiss (1968), the purview of sociology extends to

Governments, corporations, and school systems to such territorial organizations as communities or to the schools, factories, and churches . . . that are components of communities. . . . are also concerned with social aggregates, or populations, in their institutional organization. (P. 1) (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({});

Sociology is, as Touraine (1990) suggests, an interpretation of social experience and is thus a part of the reality that the practitioners of the discipline attempt to observe and explain. To these areas we can add that sociology is a discipline that demystifies its subject matter, and it is, as Dennis H. Wrong (1990:21–22) notes, a debunker of popular beliefs, holds skeptical and critical views of the institutions that are studied (Smelser 1990), and challenges myth making (Best 2001).

The early history of sociology is a history of ideas developed in the European tradition, whereas the sociological approach of the last 150 years involved the development of concepts, methodology, and theories, especially in the United States (Goudsblom and Heilbron 2001). As American sociologists trained in the traditional theory and methods developed during the first eight decades of the twentieth century, we acknowledge our intellectual debt to the European founders. But beyond an earnest recognition of the classic work of the early founders, including Auguste Comte, Émile Durkheim, Alexis de Tocqueville, Frederic LePlay, Marcell Mauss, Max Weber, Karl Marx, and Harriet Martineau, most of whom were attracted to the European environment that included the liberalism, radicalism, and conservatism of the early to mid-nineteenth century (Nisbet 1966; Friedrichs 1970) and to what C. Wright Mills (1959) refers to as the sociological imagination that “enables us to grasp history and biography and the relations between the two within society” (p. 6), our approach to sociology is deeply embedded with and indebted to those individuals who established the Chicago, Harvard, Iowa, and Berkeley schools of thought. Similarly, as practitioners, our approach to the discipline of sociology is reflected in these distinctive American scholarly perspectives.

The American tradition of sociology has focused on social policy issues relating to social problems, the recognition of which grew out of the dynamic periods of social transformation wrought by the Industrial Revolution, the Progressive Era, world crises engendered by war, worldwide population shifts, increasing mechanization, and the effort of sociologists to create a specific niche for the discipline within a growing scientific community. This effort occurred first in North America and Western Europe and then, similar to cultural transitions of the past, within a global context. In every instance, the motives embedded within a science of society lie in the attempt to understand and offer proposals for solutions to whatever problems gain significant attention at a particular point in time.

In a most interesting work, Goudsblom and Heilbron (2001) pose that sociology represents a great diversity, or what some analysts may refer to as fragmentation, because the discipline grew as a part of the processes affecting societies and cultures worldwide throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Thus, as we move well into a new era and a new stage of academic development, it remains important that we recognize the sociological heritage as identified and discussed by these analysts. The five stages that sociology has experienced to date are (1) the predisciplinary stage prior to 1830, further identified as “protosociologies”; (2) the formation of the intellectual discipline, 1830–1890; (3) the formation of an academic discipline with diverging national traditions, 1890–1930; (4) the establishment of an international academic discipline, 1930–1970; and (5) a period of crisis, fragmentation, and attempts to develop a new synthesis, 1970–2000 (Goudsblom and Heilbron 2001:14574–80).

Consistent with the fifth stage, for almost four decades we have been witness to major changes in the substantive topics that undergo sociological inquiry both in the United States and, given the influence on the discipline by Canadian, European, and Scandinavian scholars, internationally. Among the areas more fully developed that might be identified as fragmentation are many of the most interesting sociological topics, including deviant behavior, the family, religion, gender, aging, health, the environment, science and technology, among so many seemingly unrelated topics. The unique conceptual paradigms of sociology serve as a template or pattern for seeing the social world in a special way. Every discipline and, indeed, every occupation employs templates or patterns to see and accomplish things in a unique fashion. Disciplines such as sociology rely on intellectual templates based on certain conceptual schemes or paradigms that have evolved through the development of a body of knowledge in those disciplines.

In its early era of the mid- to late nineteenth century, sociology was understood to represent anything relating to the study of social problems. Indeed, it was thought that the methods of the social sciences could be applied to social problems and used to develop solutions (Bernard and Bernard 1943). In focusing on such substance, O’Neill (1967:168–69) notes that periodicals of this early period had a sociological section in which news items relating to family matters, poverty, and labor often appeared. These early social scientists did not hold any special talents other than their training in theology. This situation was similar in the United States as well. It is not difficult, then, to imagine that, as Bramson (1961) notes, “For many American sociologists these problems evoked a moral response” (p. 75). Thus, the process of solving the problems of society was attempted by application of the conventional morality and the validation of Christian principles of piety rather than reform or progress.

Sociology was born as a result of a process, a process that directed a method of inquiry away from philosophy and toward positivism (MacIver 1934). Sociology was the result of a process caused by two major forces—namely, the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution. The events, changes, and ideas that emerged from these two revolutions are found in the nineteenth-century thought pertaining to social order (Eisenstadt 1968). Following in the wake of the Age of Reason and the Renaissance, according to Nisbet (1966), this was a period of word formation:

Perhaps the richest period of word formation in history . . . which were either invented during this period or were modified to their present meanings: industry, industrialist, democracy, class, middle class, ideology, intellectual, rationalism, humanitarian, atomistic, masses, commercialism, proletariat, collectivism, equalitarian, liberal, conservative, scientist, crisis . . . [among others]. (P. 23)

These were words that held great moral and partisan interest in the European economy and culture; such passions were identified with politics as well.

Identified with European conservatism, which became infused by and with science, the visionary perspective promoted by Auguste Comte during the 1830s in his six-volume Positive Philosophy, later translated from the French and condensed into two volumes by Harriet Martineau, was based on the medieval model of European society.

This model of family, community, authority, tradition, and the sacred became the core of scientific sociology that was to serve notice that a science of society was essential to provide for more than commonsense analysis and to reestablish social order (MacIver 1934). Although unsuccessful in his quest to secure a professorship, Auguste Comte was a positivist, mathematician, and promoter of the scientific identity of the engineering profession (Noble 1999). Comte argued that positivism and the still-to-beidentified area of “sociology” would serve as a means of supporting his intention to create a unique perspective of human relations and a system to reestablish the social order and organization of society. Reestablishment of this new social order was to proceed in accordance with the positivist stage of evolution with its ineluctable natural laws that could and would be established through engaging the scientific perspective. Along with the arts, the science of sociology, according to Comte, was to emerge as the queen of the sciences, the scientia scientorum, and would ultimately supplant biology and cosmology.

If the restoration of order in French society was a preoccupation for many early-nineteenth-century scholars, including Auguste Comte, it was also the case, as Bramson (1961) notes, that

many of the key concepts of sociology illustrate this concern with the maintenance and conservation of order; ideas such as status, hierarchy ritual, integration, social function and social control are themselves a part of the history of the reaction to the ideals of the French Revolution. What conservative critics saw as resulting from these movements was not the progressive liberation of individuals, but increasing insecurity and alienation, the breakdown of traditional associations and group ties. (Pp. 13–14)

For social scientists of the early nineteenth century, many of the problems of the time were much more well defined than is the case in the contemporary experience.

Comte was fervently religious, and he believed those interested in science would constitute a “priesthood of positivism” that would ultimately lead to a new social order. According to Noble (1999),

A theist in spite of himself, Comte declared that the existence of the Great Being “is deeply stamped on all its creations, in moral, in the arts and sciences, in industry,” and he insisted, as had previous like-minded prophets since Erigena, that all such manifestations of divinity were equally vital means of mankind’s regeneration . . . Comte was convinced that people like himself, science-minded engineering savants occupied with the study of the sciences of observation are the only men whose capacity and intellectual culture fulfill the necessary conditions. (P. 85)

The legacy of this enthusiastic perspective is that sociology has been at the heart of the positivists’ contribution to the understanding of the human condition. It was also to serve in part as a basis for the reactions of conflict theorist Karl Marx, especially as these writings referred to the religious opiate of the masses deemed by Comte as critical to the reorganization of society (Noble 1999:87). The discipline continues to present an array of perspectives that have served to stimulate much controversy within both society and the discipline (see Turner 2001).

Although the sociological legacy of Harriet Martineau is substantial, as outlined by Lengermann and NiebruggeBrantley (1998), it was Martineau’s effort to translate and condense Auguste Comte’s six-volume magnum opus into a two-volume set of writings published in 1853 that allowed this important work to be available to the Englishspeaking world. Interestingly, Comte’s English translation came after Martineau’s sociological contributions, the richness of which was finally recognized by feminist researchers during the 1980s and 1990s. Martineau engaged in “participant observation” of the United States during the mid-1830s and subsequently published the two-volume Society in America (1836/1837), which is based on this excursion to the North American continent. Because of this experience, Martineau was able to lay the foundation for her treatise on research methodology in How to Observe Morals and Manners (1838).

Perhaps it is ironic that the distinctive difference between the European theoretical sociology and the empirical sociology practiced in the United States was advanced by events in Europe. Indeed, the origin of empirical sociology is rooted in Europe. Statistical studies began in the 1660s, thereby preceding the birth of all of the social sciences by a couple of centuries. The early statistical gatherers and analysts were involved in “political arithmetic” or the gathering of data considered relevant to public policy matters of the state, and as noted by Reiss (1968), the gathering of such data may have been accelerated to meet the needs of the newly emerging insurance industry and other commercial activities of the time. But it was the early work of the moral statisticians interested in reestablishing social order in the emerging industrial societies that was to lay the quantitative foundation for the discipline, especially the early scientific work of the French sociologist Émile Durkheim (Whitt 2001:229–35).

The second stage in the early history of quantification may have been related to the development of probability theory, the rise of the insurance industry, other commercial activities, and political necessity (Lecuyer and Oberschall 1968; Reiss 1968). English political arithmeticians, including John Graunt and William Petty, were destined to be followed by the efforts of the moral statisticians who engaged in data gathering in Belgium and France. Indeed, as early as 1831, the Belgian Adolphe Quetelet and the Frenchman Andre Michel de Guerry de Champneuf, in building on the early efforts of the practitioners of the “political arithmetic” that first began in the 1660s, were engaging in the government-sponsored data-gathering activity pertaining to data on moral topics, including suicide, prostitution, and illegitimacy. Such activities would prove quite instrumental in the establishment of the empirical social sciences. Even many of the methodologies developed during this same era of the early nineteenth century, as well as awareness of important ecological methodological issues such as statistical interactions, the ecological fallacy, and spuriousness, were developed by early moral statisticians such as Andre-Michel de Guerry and Adolphe Quetelet. Later, the work of Henry Morselli, Enrico Ferri, and Alfred Maury during this same century were to serve well the needs of aspiring European sociologists and even later members of the Chicago School of Sociology (Whitt 2001:229–31).

American sociology is one of the intellectual creations that has most deeply influenced our century. No other society ( the American ) has been more actively involved in understanding its own organizational change for the sake of knowledge itself. (Touraine 1990:252)

The birth of the social sciences in general and of sociology in particular is traced to the liberal democratic ideas generated by the British social philosophies of the seventeenth century—ideas that later were to be enhanced by the French Enlightenment of the eighteenth century and then transformed in the United States where these ideas served as the foundation for practical democratic society. The rise of American sociology can be traced to the early-nineteenthcentury social science movement, a movement that by the mid-1800s became a new discipline that was widely introduced into college and university curricula. The movement also led to the establishment of a national social science association that was to later spawn various distinctive social sciences, including sociology, as well as social reform associations (Bernard and Bernard 1943:1–8).

Although the promotion of the social sciences in the United States began as early as 1865 with the establishment of the American Association for the Promotion of Social Sciences and then, in 1869, creation of the American Social Science Association with its associationsponsored publication the Journal of Social Science, prior to the 1880s there had been no organized and systematic scientific research in the United States. This was the case simply because, as Howard W. Odum ([1927] 1965:3–20) noted, there was no university per se in which research as a scientific pursuit could be conducted. It is within the context of the movement to organize such a university that sociology and many other social sciences were embraced as viable academic disciplines, thereby allowing systematic research to be conducted in a rigorous manner. This also was a period of great emphasis on pursuing answers to new research questions through the evaluation of knowledge and the employment of methodological and statistical tools within an interdisciplinary context. Indeed, L. L. Bernard and Jessie Bernard (1943) posit that the vision of the founders of the American Social Science Association was “to establish a unified science of society which could and would see all human problems in their relationships and make an effort to solve these problems as unified wholes” (p. 601).

Thus, the social sciences in general and sociology in particular owe a great intellectual debt to the American intellects who studied at length with the masters of Europe. Included among these are notables such as William Graham Sumner, Lester Frank Ward, Albion Woodbury Small, Franklin Henry Giddings, John William Burgess, Herbert B. Adams, Thorstein Veblen, Frederick Jackson

Turner, James Harvey Robinson, George Vincent, Charles Horton Cooley, Edward Alsworth Ross, George Howard, Frank W. Blackmar, Ulysses G. Weatherly, John R. Commons, and Richard T. Ely (see Odum 1951, [1927] 1965); each of whom were well versed in scholarly areas other than sociology, including history, theology, economics, political science, and statistics. With the decline of the social science movement and its national association, the general discipline that emerged from the remains of social science was in fact sociology (Bernard and Bernard 1943:835).

The development of an intellectual and academic American sociology, like sociology in any part of the world, was and continues to be dependent on the social and political conditions of the country. In the United States, a liberal political climate and, in the aftermath of the Civil War, the advent of a system of a mass public education system, American sociology flourished. Thus, in countries in which the structure of the system of higher education was open to free inquiry, research was supported by private foundations and government contributions (Wright 1895), and the university was organized albeit loosely, sociology, subject to the polemics of its status as an academic science, gained entry if not acceptance among university faculty. Where education was available to the elite rather than the masses, sociology was less apt to flourish (Reiss 1968).

Another important factor is that American sociology arose basically without roots other than the growing influence of the social science movement in the United States and the emphasis on the virtues of science that permeated the intellectual and social environs of this same period. As noted by Neil J. Smelser (1990:49–60), American sociology did not experience the yoke of either European feudalism or any peculiar intellectual history. Rather, sociology came into being within American higher education during the 1880s and only after several other disciplines, including psychology and economics, had been accepted within the academy. Attempts among adherents of these other disciplines led to the establishment of the scientific theme within the social sciences. Early sociologists embraced this same scientific theme.

A second factor that had a profound effect on the early adherents of the sociological perspective is the social reform theme of the 1890s. The legacy of these two themes—namely, scientific respectability and social reform—became the dual platforms on which the unique American sociological perspective was to be based.

Although there was a great, direct influence of European thought, research, and the philosophy of the British Social Science Association on sociology to focus on attempting to solve America’s problems (Odum 1951:36–50), the rise of American sociology, at least during the first half of the twentieth century, was concomitant with the most dynamic period of technological, economic, and social reform changes ever recorded. In this context, Howard W. Odum (1951:52) views sociology as a product of the American social and cultural experience and places sociology’s heritage to be as “American as American literature,American culture, and the freedoms of the new world democracy” (p. 3). American sociology is thus part European and part American. Indeed, American sociology was envisioned early on as a social science that could and would assist policymakers and concerned citizens in creating the “American Dream.”

Consistent with this ideology, Odum (1951:59–60) identified three unique American developments, each of which influenced the direction of American sociology throughout the entire twentieth century. The first of these developments is the symbiotic relationship between the discipline and the American society and culture. The ideology that focused on the American Dream and its realization had a great influence.

The second development, according to Odum, is the emphasis on moral development and the motivation to establish ethics as a component of the educational curricula,American literature, and the social sciences, especially as these relate to ethical conduct, social justice, and public morality. Within sociology, this orientation is found in the application of sociological principles into economic and organizational behavior and the founding of the American Institute of Christian Sociology.

Finally, Odum (1951) notes, the American experience led to a research emphasis on social problems of a moral and economic nature. In an effort to better understand these social problems, sociologists organized the systematic study of issues such as waves of immigration, the working class, public disorder, neglect of children, violence toward women, intergroup conflict, urbanism, alcoholism, suicide, crime, mental illness, delinquency, and poverty (see also Fine 2006). This was the application side of sociology that held important social policy implication. However, there was also an early emphasis on a “general sociology” as opposed to a “special sociology” as was found at the more elite institutions of higher learning. Clearly, this difference foreshadowed the pure versus applied dichotomy that has generated so much discussion within the discipline (see Odum 1951:51–74).

Because of the important influence of the social science movement in the United States, there is some disagreement pertaining to who the founders and members of the first generation of American sociologists are (see Odum 1951, [1927] 1965). But publication of Lester Ward’s book Dynamic Sociology in 1883 does appear to mark the beginning of American sociology (Bramson 1961:84–85). On the other hand, there does not seem to be any disagreement as to the purpose of the American founders, and that was to establish a scientific theoretical base. Later, at the University of Chicago the goals were to establish a relationship between sociology and the classical problems of philosophy by focusing on process issues relating to elements of social control, such as conflict, competition, and accommodation (Kurtz 1986:95).

American sociology emerged concomitant with the challenges to legal philosophy and the discussion of questions relating to myriad questions that arose as the effects of industrialization were observed Calhoun (1919). Such questions have their focus on marriage, divorce, immigration, poverty, and health and how to employ the emerging scientific model to topical data that had been gathered by the nineteenth-century moral statisticians.

Leon Bramson (1961:47–48) observed that the most interesting aspect of American sociology in the first half of the twentieth century is that when affected by European theories of mass behavior and collective behavior, American sociologists, in their haste to establish a role for sociology in America, either transformed the meaning of the concepts to meet their needs or created new concepts to apply to the more liberal American social and political context. American sociologists, according to Bramson, also applied European theoretical concepts such as social pathology, social disorganization, and social control to the data referring to the American experience without regard for whatever special conditions should have been accounted for or even possible theoretical distortions; this issue is also discussed by Lester R. Kurtz (1986:60–83) in his evaluation of the Chicago School of Sociology.

Albert J. Reiss, Jr. (1968) notes that the first formal instruction of a sociology course in the United States was offered by William Graham Sumner, a professor of political and social science at Yale University, during 1876. The first, second, and third American Departments of Sociology were established at Brown University, the University of Chicago, and Columbia University, respectively (Kurtz 1986:93–97). Between 1889 and 1892, 18 American colleges and universities offered instruction in sociology, but in 1893, the University of Chicago was the first to develop a program that led to the granting of a Ph.D.

Despite the recognition of the emerging field of sociology as a distinctive area of inquiry, the focal point of a religious orientation and perhaps fervor expressed by social commentators in their discussions and analyses of the social issues that were to constitute the purview of sociology also engaged the attention of other early practitioners of the discipline. The social problems identified in the wake of expansion of the American West and the building of the railroads included issues relating to “the influx of immigrants, the rise of the factory system and the concentration of people in big cities. These comprised the now familiar catalogue of crime, delinquency, divorce, poverty, suicide, alcoholism, minority problems and slums” (Bramson 1961:75).

Alfred McClung Lee (1978:69) notes that ever since that time, sociologists have been attempting to divorce themselves from an ancestry that is historically rooted in the clergy, the police, utopian ideologues, social reformers, conservative apologists, journalistic muckrakers, radical thinkers, agitators, and civil libertarians.

Given the moral tone of much of the writing of many early American sociologists, it is noteworthy that in articulating the six “aims” of the American Journal of Sociology established at the University of Chicago in 1895, the scientific view of sociological concern so clearly defined several decades later by E. A. Ross (1936) was not so clear to many if not all of the moral philosophers of this earlier period. Witness the following comments offered by the founding editor of the American Journal of Sociology, Albion W. Small (1895):

Sociology has a foremost place in the thought of modern men. Approve or deplore the fact at pleasure, we cannot escape it. . . . To many possible readers the most important question abut the conduct of the Journal will be with reference to its attitude toward “Christian Sociology.” The answer is, in a word, towards Christian sociology sincerely deferential, toward “Christian sociologists” severely suspicious. (Pp. 1, 15)

These comments were of particular significance given that the American Journal of Sociology was not only the first journal of sociology created anywhere, but it was also, until 1936, the official journal of the American Sociological Society. Thus, the influence of both the Chicago School and the large number of contributions by its faculty and students to the American Journal of Sociology placed the work of the Chicago School at the forefront in shaping the early direction and substance of American, Canadian, and Polish sociology (Kurtz 1986:93–97). This was especially true in the subareas of urban and community studies, race and ethnic relations, crime and juvenile delinquency, deviance, communications and public opinion, and political sociology.

Leon Bramson (1961:73–95) identified three important phases in the rise of American sociology. The first period began in 1883 with the publication of Lester Ward’s Dynamic Sociology to about 1915 or 1918 with the publication of Robert E. Park’s essay on the city and/or the end of World War I, respectively. During this period, the founders began their earnest quest to establish the theoretical foundation as it related to the American experience focusing on “a liberal sociology of change and process, rather than one of conservation and equilibrium” (Bramson 1961:85).

This focus on change and process became even more evident during the second stage of American sociology, identified as the period between the two world wars. This was a period of academic expansion, with major increases in faculty and students, but even more important, led by sociologists at the University of Chicago, this was a period of specialization and the beginning of differentiation within sociology as the quest to develop a viable methodology began in earnest. This also was a meaningful period during which sociologists worked to establish the scientific status of the discipline and to earn respectability and academic legitimization. It was also a period during which many of the conceptual problems of sociology first began to emerge as its practitioners developed an increasingly complex technical vocabulary, a vast array of classification schema, and other abstract systems categories of thought. Perhaps assuming the need to compensate for a past that included so many nonscientifically moral reformistoriented representatives of the discipline, sociologists responded during this phase of development by creating complex theories that, for an extended period of time, were not only unintelligible to the layperson, but also the abstract nature of these grand theories exceeded the ability of social scientists to create methodologies appropriate to empirically test these theoretical models (Lee 1978). But despite this theoretical/methodological problem, this second stage of sociological development was also one in which much substance was created.

The history of sociology in America from prior to World War I to approximately the mid-1930s is, according to Kurtz (1986), a history of the school of thought promoted by the University of Chicago. If the second phase of American sociology is to be distinguished as a period dominated by the Chicago sociologists, it is also one that led Pitirim Sorokin to observe that American sociology was emerging as a distinctive brand:

The bulk of the sociological works in America are marked by their quantitative and empirical character while the bulk of the sociological literature of Europe is still marked by an analytical elaboration of concepts and definitions; by a philosophical and epistemological polishing of words. (Cited in Bramson 1961:89)

The period is characterized by a marked increase in the development of new and expanding methodologies and measurement. These new techniques included a plethora of scales intended to measure the theoretical concepts developed previously.

As noted, Goudsblom and Heilbron (2001) identify five phases of development of the discipline that cover the period prior to 1830 to the very end of the twentieth century. But the third phase of the development of American sociology, identified by Bramson (1961) as covering the period from 1940 to 1960, is noteworthy because this was a period during which the development and adoption of theories of the “middle-range” advocated by Robert K. Merton led to even greater specialization and differentiation of the discipline. In turn, sociologists began to develop ever-expanding areas of inquiry. Robert K. Merton ([1957] 1968), who wrote in reaction to the abstractness of the previous dominant position of the functionalist school of sociology, stated that theories of the middle range are

theories that lie between the minor but necessary working hypotheses that evolve in abundance during day-to-day research and the all-inclusive systematic efforts to develop a unified theory that will explain all the observed uniformities of social behavior, social organization and social change. (P. 39)

The all-inclusive efforts refer, of course, to the contributions of Talcott Parsons in The Structure of Social Action, originally published in 1937, and in 1951 with the appearance of The Social System.

The third phase of development can be characterized as the most enthusiastic period during which greater emphasis was placed on the application of sociological knowledge. As the field expanded, new outlets for sociological studies and knowledge were created, sociologists found employment in nonacademic settings such as government and business, and the new specialty areas of interest reflected the changes in American society, including a growing rise in membership in the middle class, the expansion of the suburbs, more leisure time, and the growth of bureaucracy. In lieu of the previous sociological interest in the reform of society and the more traditional social problems orientation of the discipline, the new sociology opted to leave such concerns to the social work profession and to special studies programs such as criminology. Thus, specialty areas emerged—areas such as the sociology of marriage and the family, and aging (later to be defined as gerontology), industrial sociology, public opinion, organizations, communications, and social psychiatry (later called mental health). From this point forward, the continued rise to respectability of sociology is attributed by analysts such as Robert Nisbet (1966) to the public recognition that societal problems are more integrative in nature than previously thought. This may also serve as a partial explanation for why the discipline is viewed by some as fragmented.

The logic and ethos of science is the search for the truth, the objective truth. Thus, the most fundamental problem the social scientist confronts, according to Gunnar Myrdal (1969), is this:

What is objectivity, and how can the student attain objectivity in trying to find out the facts and the causal relationships between facts? [That is,] How can a biased view be avoided? The challenge is to maintain an objectivity of that which the sociologist is a part. (P. 3)

Although the sociologies of the United States and Europe differ in perspective, both attempt to answer similar albeit distinguishable questions. In his discussion of “the two faces of sociology,” Touraine (1990:240) states that these differences lie in the scholarly research response to two problems: (1) How does society exist? (2) How are culture and society historically created and transformed by work, by the specific way nature and its resources are put to use, and through systems of political, economic, and social organization? Because the intellectual legacy of American sociological thought has been shaped to a large extent by the historical experience of creating a nation in which the rights and the will of the American people have been dominant, American sociologists have long focused on “institution” as a central concept and the significance of efforts of reform movements within the American society to affect its social organization. Thus, the substance of American sociology has been on topics such as the family, social organization, community, the criminal justice system, and law and society among the numerous institutionallevel areas of inquiry that are evaluated within the context of yet another American theoretical focus—namely, the emphasis on theories of the middle range. European sociologists, on the other hand, tend to focus on the second question while emphasizing the concept “revolution” in their analyses. Thus, even when similar topics such as social movements serve as the focus of inquiry, the American and European sociology responds from a different perspective (Touraine 1990). To understand the importance of this difference in perspective between the two sociologies, Alain Touraine (1990) poses the view that American sociology has a symbiotic relationship between culture and society, whereas European sociology integrates society and its history. Americans sociologists focus on society; the European sociology is focused on the rich history that serves as the backdrop for any attempt to understand social change.

Because the American experience is predicated on building a nation through the rule of law; the concepts of individualism, capitalism, and territorial conquest; and the attempt at integration of successive waves of immigrants to the North American continent,American sociology began its rise in prominence through an elitist intellectual process that dominated the academy during the early formative years of the discipline. Thus, it is perhaps ironic that an American sociology housed within the university setting would assume a critical teaching and research posture toward an elitist system of institutions that the early sociology assisted in creating. Within the context of certain kinds of social problems areas, such as ethnic studies, discrimination, and segregation, sociology and sociologists have been able to exert some influence. But in other important areas within which issues relating to elitist society may be involved, such as social class relations and economic and political power, the official and public perceptions of the efforts of American sociologists may not be as well received.

Many analysts of the past can be called on to render testimony in support of or apologize for the past efforts of sociologists to provide useful information, but none is perhaps more relevant than the following statement offered by George A. Lundberg (1947): “Good intentions are not a substitute for good techniques in either achieving physical or social goals” (p. 135). During the 1960s and 1970s, sociology, psychology, and other social science undergraduate job candidates customarily responded to interviewer queries with “I want to help people.” Similar to those who attended graduate school after World War II, these individuals were influenced by the potential of sociology to make a difference. But good intentions aside, the real issue is, How do we go about assisting/helping people? Perhaps the more educated and sophisticated we become, the more difficult are the answers to social problems and social arrangements that are deemed inappropriate or at least in need of some form of rearrangement. That is, the more we believe we already know the answers, the less apt we are to recognize the importance of the sociological perspective. Within this context, sociology necessarily must adhere to and advocate the use of the methods of science in approaching any social problem, whether this is local or international in scope.

Sociology has utility beyond addressing social problems and contributing to the development of new social policy. Indeed, the sociological perspective is empowering. Those who use it are in a position to bring about certain behavior in others. It has been said that “behavior that can be understood can be predicted, and behavior that can be predicted can likely be controlled.” It is not surprising that sociologists are often used to help select juries, develop effective advertising campaigns, plan political strategies for elections, and solve human relations problems in the workplace. As Peter Berger (1963) phrases it, “Sociological understanding can be recommended to social workers, but also to salesmen, nurses, evangelists and politicians—in fact to anyone whose goals involve the manipulation of men, for whatever purpose and with whatever moral justification” (p. 5). In some ways, it might be said that the sociological perspective puts one “in control.”

The manipulation of others, even for commendable purposes, however, is not without critical reaction or detractors. Some years back, industrial sociologists who worked for, or consulted with, industrial corporations to aid them to better address problems in the workplace were sometimes cynically labeled as “cow sociologists” because “they helped management milk the workers.” Knowledge is power that can be used for good or evil. The sociological perspective is utilitarian and empowering in that it can accomplish things for whatever purposes. Berger (1963) goes on to reflect the following:

If the sociologist can be considered a Machiavellian figure, then his talents can be employed in both humanly nefarious and humanly liberating enterprises. If a somewhat colorful metaphor may be allowed here, one can think of the sociologist as a condottiere of social perception. Some condottieri fight for the oppressors of men, others for their liberators. Especially if one looks around beyond the frontiers of America as well as within them, one can find enough grounds to believe that there is a place in today’s world for the latter type of condottiere. (P. 170)

Responding to the question, “Can science save us?” George A. Lundberg (1947) states “yes,” but he also equates the use of brain (the mind) as tantamount to employing science. Lundberg also posed the following: “Shall we place our faith in science or in something else?” (p. 142). Physical science is not capable of responding to human social issues. If sociologists have in a vain effort failed to fulfill the promise of the past, this does not indicate that they will not do so at some future time. Again, as Lundberg (1947) heeded long ago, “Science is at best a growth, not a sudden revelation. We also can use it imperfectly and in part while it is developing” (pp. 143–144).

And a few years later but prior to the turmoil that was to embroil the decades of the 1960s and 1970s, John Madge (1962) urged that a century after the death of the positivist Auguste Comte (now 150 years later) the structure of sociology remains incomplete. However, Madge recognized and demonstrates in The Origins of Scientific Sociology that sociology was slowly gaining in maturity and with this growth was on the verge of or within reach of achieving the status of a science. But it is also important to keep in focus the goals of science as articulated by Gunnar Myrdal (1969)—more specifically, “The goals of objectivity and effectiveness in research are honesty, clarity, and effectiveness” (p. 72). If the results of sociological research have been less than to the liking of policymakers and government and corporate leaders, then yet another of Myrdal’s insights is especially germane. That is,

Research is always and by logical necessity based on moral and political valuations, and the researcher should be obligated to account for them explicitly. When these valuations are brought out into the open any one who finds a particular piece of research to have been founded on what is considered wrong valuation can challenge it on that ground. (P. 74)

There are other reasons as well, reasons that complicate the delivery of the important message promoted by the discipline’s practitioners, for as noted by Joel Best (2003:11), sociology “is a perspective built on relativism, built on the recognition that people understand the world differently.” Indeed, many years earlier George C. Homans (1967) observed,

If some of the social sciences seem to have made little progress, at least in the direction of generalizing and explanatory science, the reason lies neither in lack of intelligence on the part of the scientists nor in the newness of the subject as an academic discipline. It lies rather in what is out there in the world of nature. (P. 89)

Such statements lie at the heart of the epistemological debate that began in the 1920s (see Reiss 1968:10–11) and continues into the modern era. Despite the vastness of sociological inquiry, it is obvious that a strong orientation toward the scientific study of human behavior, social interaction, and organizations continues and that this scientific focus is predicated on the assumption that such study is possible because it is based on the examination of phenomena that are subject to the operation of universal laws, a point not lost in the minds of the discipline’s founders. The counterpoint that the social sciences are cultural sciences and thereby fundamentally different from the physical sciences and also subject to different methodology and other evaluative criteria is representative of a longstanding European influence that also began in the 1920s.

Given the diversity and fluidity of the topics addressed and the levels of theories employed by sociologists, it is not surprising that many others do not agree. The counterargument is based on the premise that given the circumstances behind the evolution of science and the support it received in the past and the more repressive attention it receives in the contemporary experience from powerful interest groups, objective social science and the establishment of universal laws that are based on such inquiry may not be possible (see Turner 2001).

Whether or not one argues that the study of human society is unique, it is still extraordinary given the vast array of extant theories used to express the human experience and capacity. Witness the statement of one contemporary analyst who, in an intriguing assessment of the contemporary American “wilding” experience, wrote,

Sociology arose as an inquiry into the dangers of modern individualism, which could potentially kill society itself. The prospect of the death of society gave birth to the question . . . what makes society possible and prevents it from disintegrating into a mass of sociopathic and self-interested isolates? This core question of sociology has become the vital issue of our times. (Charles Derber 2003:18)

Only in part is Derber referring to the American experience. His assessment also speaks to the experience of Western Europe. Much social change has taken place, and the efforts of sociologists to describe and explain this change and to draw upon these insights to develop predictive models has led to a diversity of theories. Indeed, over time, the scientific paradigm shifts more generally described by Thomas Kuhn ([1962] 1970) are obvious in our discipline (see Friedrichs 1970). There have been, there are at present, and there undoubtedly will be future paradigm shifts within this evolving and apparently expanding discipline of sociology, many of which will focus, as has been the case in the past, on the social change process. And for all the so-called objectivity of a scientific sociology advocated by analysts such as George A. Lundberg (1947), the development of which is so eloquently described by Leon Bramson (1961)), sociologists have been involved in social activism and social engineering, that first occurred during the embryonic years of the discipline’s development (Volkart 1968). Such activism occurred again during the 1960s and 1970s, in many social justice areas, and in occupational settings such as those of the criminal justice system.

At present, sociological inquiry represents a vast array of topics and offers many competing theoretical models while its practitioners attempt to make sense of a rapidly changing world. For all its middle-range theories and studies that reflect the efforts of those dedicated to cumulative knowledge, it is also important that we recognize that the building of a paradigm as well as challenges to an extant paradigm are not relegated to the gathering of information alone. Indeed, if sociology is to advantage itself in the twenty-first century, it may be imperative that a dominant paradigm begins to identify the kinds of community needs that it can usually serve, for as Joseph R. Gusfield (1990) so clearly notes, sociology has been at odds with and a critic of the classical economic and individualistic interpretations of American life. Thus, whatever issues sociology may need to address at this juncture, perhaps we are hampered only by the limits of the sociological imagination. Again, the following comment by Homans (1967) is noteworthy:

The difficulties of social science lie in explanation rather than discovery. . . . Our trouble has not been with making discoveries but with organizing them theoretically—showing how they follow under a variety of given conditions from a few general principles. (Pp. 79, 105)

The present diversity of the discipline welcomed by so many social critics also serves as a barrier to the creation of a dominant theoretical paradigm. Without this focus, sociology remains in the minds of many of the discipline’s representatives a less-than-coherent discipline. Perhaps this is not different from the struggle of the 1960s as described by Gouldner (1970), a period that also was far less than organized and coherent and certainly far less civil in disagreement. It is important that sociologists take stock of their trade and question in earnest the utility of the work we do. As noted by Herbert L. Gans (1990),

By and large, we sociologists have been too distant from the society in which we operate and in which we are embedded, which funds us even if too poorly and which influences us surely more than we influence it. We are too busy trying to understand how that society functions . . . that we rarely think about our own functions—and dysfunctions. To some extent our failure to do so stems from a typical professional blindness, which results in our inability to distance ourselves sufficiently from ourselves and our routines to look systematically at what we are for and to whom. (Pp. 12–13)

Not all may agree, of course. Indeed, sociology in the United States and in Europe has been a critique of modern urban life with its emphasis on the individual, capitalism, and bureaucracy. In some instances, this critique of American society has been radical and reformist in its thrust (Gusfield 1990:31–46). And although American sociology had been shaped in part by psychology in establishing its methodology during the first two-thirds of the twentieth century, especially through a common socialpsychological area (see, e.g., Reiss 1968), it can be safely stated that American sociology has been transformed during the latter decades of the twentieth century.

Sociologists may be accused of engaging in an affair with their work. Witness the stirring comments of one colleague:

I fell in love with sociology when I was twelve. . . . Sociology was my savior. It saved me from the vexing confusion caused by my once despising the mundaneness of everyday life and deeply loving and admiring my people. It stabilized me by articulating the dedication that I felt for social justice. (Shahidian 1999:303–04)

We share this passionate approach to social science based on the insightful development of theory and empirical research, an approach that has, in turn, led to a vast array of subject matter. In light of these impressive contributions, the only aspect of this endeavor that may seem perplexing to some is that as we move further into the twenty-first century, there are those who continue to believe in and practice the scientific method; there also are those who argue that if the logic of science and the methods of scientific objectivity are to be carried to an extreme, sociology will lose or has already lost its humanistic perspective and, with this loss, the inclination toward active community involvement through social policy advocacy and practical intervention. As Peter L. Berger (1963) phrases it,

At the same time it is quite true that some sociologists, especially in America, have become so preoccupied with methodological questions that they have ceased to be interested in society at all. As a result, they have found out nothing of significance about any aspect of social life, since in science as in love a concentration on technique is quite likely to lead to impotence. (P. 13)

This dichotomy certainly is a matter of considerable debate, but perhaps most advocates and active practitioners of the discipline would fall somewhere in between these two orientations (see, e.g., Reiss 1968:10–11). In this regard, we are also optimistic that the sociological imagination will continue to be an important part of the work of sociologists as they take into consideration “a quality of mind that will help them to use information and to develop reason in order to achieve lucid summations of what is going on in the world and of what may be happening within themselves” (Mills 1959:5).

More than 170 years ago, sociology began to emerge from its philosophical and biological roots to it current status as an important social science. Early sociologists achieved renown based on their interest in providing information useful to appraise social policy issues. However, in the contemporary instance, there are strong indicators that sociology has not achieved the eminent position envisioned by the founders. Note the less-than-enthusiastic assessment offered by Black (1999):

The problems endemic to the discipline of sociology include the lack of a paradigm, disciplinary fragmentation, and the irreconcilability of science, ideology, and politics . . . and the lack of an occupational niche—[all these] place sociologists in the position of having constantly to defend the profession. (Pp. 261, 263)

Thus, as we move well into the twenty-first century, it is clear that sociology is engaged in yet another struggle to (re)identify itself. Perhaps such a struggle is to be expected of any science of human behavior. And nowhere is this situation more contentious than in the responses of representatives of the discipline to the question as to whether sociology is or is not yet considered an activity worthy of the label “scientific activity.”

At the center of this struggle lies the heart of any discipline—namely, sociological theory. Among the eminent theorists reporting on the status of sociology in this Handbook are individuals who represent the very best of what the discipline has to offer. That the message is suggestive of a continuing debate within the discipline is both disheartening and encouraging. It is disheartening in that after a period of more than 175 years, representatives of the discipline should be able to exclaim with great pride the accomplishments of so much activity instead of debating their scientific worth. It is encouraging because the current debate over the theory and the substance of the work sociologists engage in can only lead to the exploration of new and challenging frontiers. But the substance of sociological inquiry also represents a matter of contention for many research- and practitioner-oriented representatives of the discipline. Some contemporary analysts who have observed the developments within the academy during the past several decades call for a critical reevaluation of that which sociologists identify as the substance of research and understanding. Sociology has given birth to and generated intense interest in many areas of study that are no longer identified with the discipline. Because the specific subareas developed by sociologists became well accepted as legitimate applied disciplines within the academy, independent, overlapping units within the academy have been created.

If the 1960s represent the golden era of sociology, it is also a period, as described by Turner and Sica (2006), that is “remembered as a time of violence, massive social change, and personal transformation” (p. 4). The period had a profound effect on an entire generation of students, many of whom were instrumental in creating the new sociological emphasis that today is criticized for its diversity, the lack of continuity, and a failure to develop a unified paradigm. Whatever reservations that may continue to exist as we progress well into the twenty-first century, these can be hailed as a challenge. Thus, at the same time that community involvement and applied research are increasingly being devalued in the academic world, there is a distinct pressure, according to Harris and Wise (1998), for sociologists to become increasingly involved in the community and society.

This call to establish a public sociology may well combine with the three types of knowledge identified by Burawoy (2005)—the professional, critical, and policyspecific databases. In each of these areas, the initiative would be consistent with enthusiastic proclamations of the past. George A. Lundberg’s (1947) Can Science Save Us? serves as but one important example of those who promoted the application of social science insights to solve social problems. Of course, one major difference between the time when Lundberg wrote and now is that we are not rebounding from the tragedy of a world war. Indeed, it was during the post-World War II period and during the subsequent several decades that American sociology assumed its theoretical and empirical dominance (Odum 1951), especially in the area of deviant behavior (see Touraine 1990). Yet another important difference between then and now, as Harris and Wise (1998) suggest, is that sociologists need to be perceived as problem solvers rather than as social critics, and similar to the pleas of Marion Talbot (1896) at the end of the nineteenth century, much of the sociological may necessarily become interdisciplinary in nature. This perspective is supported as a portion of a more scholarly editorial philosophy articulated by Wharton (2006:1–2). Most noteworthy for our purpose are points three and four:

(3) Be aware and reflective about the . . . broader contributions to scholarship, policy, and/or activism . . . ; (4) produce useful knowledge—not merely in the applied sense of solving problems, but knowledge that is useful as basic research that can help people better understand and transform the social world. (P. 1)

These same kinds of issues—social activism and public policy research—were recognized at the end of the nineteenth century as strengths of the new discipline.

Thus, there appears to be hopeful as well as worrisome aspects of sociology at the end of the twentieth century (Lewis 1999). But this kind of enthusiasm and concern appears to be periodic throughout the history of the discipline as sociologists attempt to both define and then redefine the parameters of what some argue is too extensive a range of topics to allow practitioners of the discipline to be definitively identified (Best 2003). Witness the statement attributed to one of the coeditors of this Handbook who, in the early 1980s, wrote the following:

Future prospects for sociology(ists) no doubt will depend upon our ability to identify and respond to community needs, to compete for funds available from nontraditional sources, to work in applied areas, and to establish creative problemsolving strategies. The challenge before us should generate a healthy response. (Peck 1982:319–20)

Since that time and in the wake of a declining influence of the social sciences, there has been a response as evidenced by the many new areas of inquiry, many interdisciplinary in nature, that currently curry attention from sociologists. Indeed, there does appear to be a fragmentation, but this so-called fragmentation is consistent with an assessment offered by Beck (1999), “Sociology today, as throughout its history, is not unified. . . . we have never been able to sustain . . . unanimity and consistency for very long. Thank goodness” (p. 121).

Perhaps we do not engage in “normal science,” at least not in the sense that Thomas Kuhn ([1962] 1970) refers to it. That is, academic sociologists continue to function quite well even though they are outside the single frame of reference that usually serves as the paradigmatic foundation for the physical sciences. Normal science is rigid, but it is also burdened by uncertainty and inconsistency, as Friedrichs (1970) observes. In the case of sociology, this is found in the diversity of theoretical models and topical areas. Although some analysts lament the current state of the discipline, Jacobs (2004) recently observed that “some might view this diversity [of topics] as evidence of excessive fragmentation, (but) there are important theoretical connections” (p. v). Of course, the substance of manuscripts submitted for possible publication, the rubrics under which the research can be categorized, is quite different from the search for a common sociological paradigm. To wit, classic studies do exist, but none serve to forge a single paradigm. Thus, the future of the discipline will depend, as usual, on the contributions of those who may be relatively silent in the wake of less-than-acceptable “scholarship,” as suggested by Lewis (1999), but who nonetheless commit themselves to excellence by producing significant contributions to theory and application (see, e.g., Rossi 1999) that should, in the long run, counter the myriad productions that are less significant. Concomitant with this effort will be an increased awareness of and involvement in the applied and an earnest effort to again be a viable force in the policy-related aspects of sociology and society. In other words, we believe there will be a reawakening of and involvement in those aspects of sociology that served the discipline well during its early years of development in the United States (see Ross 1936) even as the applied social work-oriented practitioners broke away to form their own professional association (Odum 1951; Rossi 1999). Indeed, there exists a need for answers to myriad policy-oriented questions as well as applied concerns at all governmental levels.

But in the end, sociologists may, as Beck (1999:123) suggests, go where they go, where they want to go. This may again mean that sociologists will abandon important areas of inquiry that they helped to establish, leaving the sociological legacy to others. Sociologists will also move to create other areas of inquiry while questioning past and present assumptions and knowledge claims in an ongoing quest to better understand social arrangements and to engage in, as Beck (1999) observes, “life, liberty, the pursuit of happiness, and the sociological imagination” (p. 124). To this we can add the quest to establish the meaning of social justice in a rapidly changing democratic society.

Thus, contrary to dubious predictions of an ominous obscure future, the content of this Handbook attests to a much more positive and grand future orientation within the discipline that will include much more than the rigorous efforts to clean up conceptual problems that sociologists are supposedly noted for. Moreover, the epistemological debates of the past will undoubtedly continue as Turner (2001) and Best (2003) suggest, but in so doing, the future of academic sociology will again be broadened. This expansion will again, we think, involve the applied aspects of the discipline and engagement of the public through active involvement of sociologists in the four traditional areas—namely, through a public sociology with an emphasis on further development of the profession and a critical civic activism with the intent to broadly influence social policy. Moreover, the increasing influence of European sociology in the global community will undoubtedly continue; this influence is not only important, it is most welcome. Given the above, it may well be that another call to arms will result. There has been a movement, albeit a small movement, among highly regarded intellectuals (the National Association of Scholars) to enhance the substance and quality of academic teaching and scholarly activity. This, too, is welcome in sociology.

The world that engages a scientist, as noted by Friedrichs (1970), is one that emerges from a scientific tradition, along with its special vocabulary and grammar and environment. Sociology’s laboratory is the social world and on occasion its practitioners are criticized by those who argue the arcane nature of all that is considered scientific. If the normal science, as described by Thomas Kuhn ([1962] 1970) and Robert W. Friedrichs (1970), is to be realized within the discipline of sociology, then it may depend on efforts of young sociologists (see, e.g., Frickel and Gross 2005) who may capture the essence of such a paradigm in a general theory of scientific/intellectual movements. Such work may also serve to stimulate more thought as to the requisite initiatives essential for subsequently developing the kind of intellectual movement that will define once again, and actively promote, the substance of the sociological perspective.

If the emphasis of American sociology at the beginning of the twentieth century was unsophisticated, armchair science that “featured the study of general society and the ‘system’ of social theory, it reflected not only the almost universal philosophical approach but also the consistency of the best minds in interaction with European philosophy and American higher education” (Odum 1951:421–22). In the mid-twentieth century, sociology, similar to other social and physical sciences, struggled to determine whether the future of the discipline would continue to pursue a general systems theory of society or whether the discipline’s practitioners would develop more theory and then relate these theories to research and the scientific method (Odum 1951:422). At this critical midpoint of the century past, and in recognition of the importance of the discipline, Odum (1951) wrote that there is

the extraordinary need in the contemporary world for a social science to seek special knowledge of human society and welfare and meet the crises brought on by science and technology, so often out of perspective to human relations, and so to provide the basis for not only a social morale in an age of science but for societal survival as well. (P. 3)

At the end of the twentieth century, these comments rang clear, and as we move forward and well into the greater twenty-first-century experience, Odum’s words seem no less germane today than in the past.

Toward establishing the prospects for the future of this great academic discipline, we hasten to add how critical it is and will be to again acknowledge the important work of the founding mothers and fathers of sociology. Thus, at the end of the twentieth century, the state of sociology may have been debatable, but during the initial decades of the twenty-first century, sociologists will undoubtedly take up the challenge to pursue answers to vexing social problems that are, as Fine (2006:14–15) states, embedded with complex, dynamic, interconnected social systems. Some of the solutions to be tendered in the near future may not serve well the needs of all citizens, but these should nonetheless address policy issues relating to social freedom, social justice, and social equality while recognizing that such policies determine the behavior of those actors whom sociologists are intent to study. Herein American sociologists may now have achieved the requisite disciplinary maturity to employ the kind of sociological imagination envisioned by C. Wright Mills (1959) half a century ago. Such a sociology would, in the tradition of Europe, encompass a biography and history within society, thereby allowing sociology to represent not only a scientific enterprise but also to serve as a sensitizing discipline that allows us to continue to view the world in a new and interpretive fashion.

Finally, in some peculiar ways, the vexing problems that capture our attention during the early portion of the twenty-first century parallel those of the early twentieth century; this is true at all levels of society and perhaps even more so within those sectors that heretofore were barricaded from a critical analyses. The actors may have changed but, in general, the public concerns regarding the kinds of behavior tolerated and considered to be appropriate tend to remain the same. And as the moral entrepreneurs of the twenty-first century push their agendas, the new prohibitionist movements continue to capture the attention of policymakers, which may of necessity be cause for some sociologists at least to revisit many of the same topics that held sway in the past. Thus, we will continue to use templates in our lives to understand the world, physical and social, in which we exist. The sociological templates derived from the many conceptual constructs available provide us with a unique and perceptive perspective. As sociology further develops, new conceptual constructs will be added and will contribute to its unique perspective, thereby enhancing our ability to better analyze and understand human social behavior.

Bibliography:

  • Beck, Bernard. 1999. “The Future of Sociology.” Sociological Inquiry 69:121–29.
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  • Bernard, L. L. and Jessie Bernard. 1943. Origins of American Sociology. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell.
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  • Best, Joel. 2003. “Killing the Messenger: The Social Problems of Sociology.” Social Problems 50:1–13.
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  • Fine, Gary Alan. 2006. “The Chaining of Social Problems: Solution, and Unintended Consequences in the Age of Betrayal.” Social Problems 53:3–17.
  • Frickel, Scott and Neil Gross. 2005. “A General Theory of Scientific/Intellectual Movements.” American Journal of Sociology 70:204–32.
  • Friedrichs, Robert W. 1970. A Sociology of Sociology. New York: Free Press.
  • Gans, Herbert J., ed. 1990. Sociology in America. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
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  • Gouldner, Alvin W. 1970. The Coming Crisis in Western Sociology. New York: Basic Books.
  • Gusfield, Joseph R. 1990. “Sociology’s Effects on Society.” Pp. 31–46 in Sociology in America, edited by H. J. Gans. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
  • Harris, Catherine and Michael Wise. 1998. “Grassroots Sociology and the Future of the Discipline.” American Sociologist Winter:29–47.
  • Hollander, Paul. 1999. “Saving Sociology?” Sociological Inquiry 69:130–47.
  • Homans, George C. 1967. The Nature of Social Science. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.
  • Jacobs, Jerry A. 2004. “ASR: Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow.” American Sociological Review 69:v–vi.
  • Kuhn, Thomas S. [1962] 1970. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. 2d ed. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
  • Kurtz, Lester R. 1986. Evaluating Chicago Sociology. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
  • Lecuyer, Bernard and Anthony R. Oberschall. 1968. “The Early History of Social Research.” Pp. 36–52 in International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by D. L. Sills. New York: Macmillan/Free Press.
  • Lee, Alfred McClung. 1978. Sociology for Whom? New York: Oxford University Press.
  • Lengermann, Patricia Madoo and Jill Niebrugge-Brantley. 1998. The Women Founders: Sociology and Social Theory, 1830–1930. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
  • Lewis, Michael. 1999. “Introduction: Saving Sociology (Part I).” Sociological Inquiry 69:106–109.
  • Lundberg, George A. 1947. Can Science Save Us? New York: David McKay.
  • MacIver, R. M. 1934. “Sociology.” Pp. 232–46 in Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by E. R. A. Seligman and A. Johnson. New York: Macmillan.
  • Madge, John. 1962. The Origins of Scientific Sociology. New York: Free Press.
  • Martineau, Harriet. 1836/1837 . Society in America. London, England: Saunders & Otley .
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  • Noble, David F. 1999. The Religion of Technology. New York: Penguin Putnam.
  • Odum, Howard W. 1951. American Sociology: The Story of Sociology in the United States through 1950. New York: Longmans, Green.
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  • O’Neill, William L. 1967. Divorce in the Progressive Era. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
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  • Reiss, Albert J. 1968. “Sociology: The Field.” Pp. 1–22 in International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by D. L. Sills. New York: Macmillan/Free Press.
  • Ross, E. A. 1936. “Some Contributions of Sociology to the Guidance of Society.” American Sociological Review 1:29–32.
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  • Talbot, Marion. 1896. “Sanitation and Sociology.” American Journal of Sociology 2:74–81.
  • Touraine, Alain. 1990. “American Sociology Viewed from Abroad.” Pp. 239–52 in Sociology in America, edited by H. J. Gans. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
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  • Turner, Stephen and Alan Sica. 2006. “Two Scholars Examine Golden Decade’s Imprint on Today’s Sociologists.” Footnotes 34(2):4.
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  • Whitt, Hugh P. 2001. “The Moral Statisticians” Pp. 229–35 in Encyclopedia of Criminology and Deviant Behavior, Historical, Conceptual, and Theoretical Issues, 1, edited by P. A. Adler, P. Adler, and J. Corzine. Philadelphia, PA: Brunner-Routledge.
  • Wright, Carroll D. 1895. “Contributions of the United States Government to Social Science.” American Journal of Sociology 1(3):241–75.
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Word 2013: How to Format APA Style

Watch this video, pausing and restarting, to help you format your paper in APA format. You may also use the guide below.

Step 1: Format your Word features

You will need to first set up these features in your Word Document.

Font :  HOME tab > 12 point font size and Times New Roman. Other acceptable fonts are Calibri, Arial, and Georgia in 11 point size.

Margins: PAGE LAYOUT > Margins >Normal (Top 1”, Bottom 1”, Left 1”, Right  1”)

Spacing : Choose PAGE LAYOUT > Paragraph > tiny arrow in the far right bottom corner of that box. It should open the Paragraph Settings. Then, set the spacing to DOUBLE.

Step 2: Setting Up the Header and/or Page Numbers

The running head is not required in student papers, unless required by your professor or institution. However, manuscripts that are being submitted for publication do require a running head.

To add a running head to your paper, follow the steps below. 

1. INSERT > Header > Choose the first one (Blank)

2. The Header will pop up. Above it, the DESIGN tab will be in green. With the DESIGN tab open, choose the HOME tab. Choose Times New Roman font in size 12.

3. Hit the CAPS LOCK button on your keyboard. Type  TITLE OF YOUR PAPER .  Unlock the CAPS LOCK function.  NOTE: The title of your paper should not be longer than 50 characters; if it is a long title, you will need to shorten the title in the running head. (You may keep the title as long as you wish on the title category of the title page.)

4. Hit the TAB button until you move the cursor to the far right.

5.  Click on the INSERT > Page number > Current Position > Plain Number (first option).

6. Click, hold, and drag to highlight all the text in your header, including the page number. Choose the HOME tab, then change the font style to Times New Roman and change the font size to 12.

7. Double click outside of your header and into the main part of the page.

If you do not need to set up the running head, you still need to insert page numbers.

1. In the INSERT tab, choose Page Number.

2. Click Top of page, then choose Plain Number 3 to add a page number to the top right corner of your page.

3. Click, hold, and drag to highlight all the text in your header, including the page number. Choose the HOME tab, then change the font style to Times New Roman and change the font size to 12.

4. Double click outside of your header and into the main part of the page.

Step 3: Format your Title Page

1. Place your title in the upper half of the title page. To achieve this, hit ENTER 4-5 times.

2. Go to HOME > Paragraph > Center button to center your title.

3. Still in the HOME tab, choose  B  to make the font boldface.

4. Type in your title, using appropriate capitalization.  NOTE: Your title should not be longer than twelve words or contain abbreviations. It may be one or two lines.

5. Hit ENTER. In the HOME tab, choose B to make the font no longer boldface. Type in your name (first and last) using appropriate capitalization.

6. Hit ENTER. Type in the institution's name: Walters State Community College   NOTE : Do NOT abbreviate.

7. Click INSERT tab > Page Break to move to the second page of your essay. (You can also just hit enter until you get to the next page.)

Step 4: Format your Abstract Page

NOTE: Abstracts are required for most scholarly journals, but not always for student assignments. If in doubt, ask your instructor whether an abstract is required for your assignment.

1. Your abstract should be the second page of your essay.

2. In the HOME tab, choose CENTER alignment in the paragraph box. Then click  B  to make the font boldface.

3. Type the word Abstract  .  NOTE: Do not use quotation marks, make the font italicized, or make it larger.

4. Hit Enter once. Choose HOME > Paragraph > Align Left. Still in the HOME tab, choose B to make the font no longer boldface. (This is the button that puts the cursor back to the left side of the page.)  DO NOT INDENT. Type a brief, objective summary of your essay that should be no longer than 250 words.

Step 5: Format your First Page of Essay

To format the first page of your essay, follow these instructions.

1. INSERT> Page Break to get to the next page of your essay, or click enter until you get to the next page.

2. Go to Home > Paragraph >Align Center. Choose B  to make the font boldfaced. Type the full title, using appropriate capitalization, on the first line.

3. Hit enter. Read A & B below.       a. If you are using a heading for the first part of your paper (e.g. Review of Literature, Methodology, etc.), then you will need to type your heading using the following format: Bold, center-aligned, with appropriate capitalization. See 3.03 (page 62) in the APA Publication Manual if you have multiple levels of headings.

      b. If you are not using a heading, or you are ready to type your essay, got to HOME> Paragraph > Align left. Still in the HOME tab, click B to make the font no longer boldface. (This is the button that puts the cursor back to the left side of the page.) Then, indent and begin typing your essay.

Step 7: Format your Reference Page

To format your References page in Word, please follow these directions.

1. After you have finished your essay, click INSERT > Page Break.

2. Center your cursor. Choose B in the HOME tab to make the font boldface. Type Reference if your essay contains only one citation. Type References if your essay contains more than one distinct citation.

3. Hit ENTER. Choose HOME > Paragraph > Align Left. (This is the button that puts the cursor back to the left side of the page.)

4. Choose PAGE LAYOUT > Paragraph > tiny arrow in the far right bottom corner of that box. It should open the Paragraph Settings.

5. In the Paragraph Settings box, choose Indentation > Special > Drop down the box to HANGING. (Below is what you should see.)

6. In the HOME tab, choose  B to make the font no longer boldface.

7. Type in your reference list in alphabetical order by last name, following APA style rules. Make sure that you double space between each entry (Do NOT hit enter more than once at the end of each entry. You should not be spacing more than the double-space that the computer does for you.)

Sources Used

APA Publication Manual, 7th Edition (2019) was consulted in creating this guide.

Questions or Comments

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Sociology Term Papers Example

Type of paper: Term Paper

Topic: Sociology , Social Class , Society , Development , Family , Economics , Culture , Reason

Words: 1800

Published: 10/30/2021

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Social Class and Education

Introduction

There is an increasing population in many regions of the world today. This increase comes with an increased diversification in the major sectors of the world including the political, social, and economic sectors. This diversification in these sectors contributes to the rapid development of social classes in these regions. The social classes are the various groupings in the societies with which particular individuals identify themselves. On the other hand, the increasing globalization and challenges in various political, social and economic segments have promoted the increase in the levels of education in various regions around the globe. For this reason, there is a distinct connection between the social class and education in these societies in the sense that they all encompass political, economic, and social issues. This topic is important in the field of sociology because it provides an understanding of the interrelationship between the social classes in the societies and the education in these societies. Understanding this relationship is essential in the sense that it provides an overview of the role of sociological aspects in the solving of the various problems facing social institutions across the globe. The social class is concerned with the groupings of individuals in the society. These groups suggest the unity of the people in the society. Each of these groups are has its role in the development of the society. For this reason, education comes in. education seeks to provide individuals with the required knowledge and skills of handling various issues in the society. Social Class and Education The paper will discuss the existent relationship between the society, education, and social class. The paper will seek to relate the social class and education from the Marxist perspective. Fist, the paper will discuss the social class and the various avenues of measuring it. Second, it will provide some of the key concepts of the Marxist social view of class analysis. Third, the paper will relate these concepts to the education in the societies with relation to a variety of scholarly studies on the same topic. Social class is an identity of individuals in terms of elements such as height, sexuality, religion, and age among others. Nevertheless, social class can also be deemed as having specific significance in the society. The social class is recognized as the reflection as well s the causing of key cultural, social, and economic difference in, for instance, lifestyle, education, and income. Social class, therefore, is a representation of the elemental sectors in the society and the individuals that facilitate the development of these sectors. The combination of education and social class is influenced by the Marxist theory and viewpoint of the social class on education with respect to schooling. Curriculum is an elemental viewpoint of the theory and viewpoint. According to this theory of social class, the state and the situation of the social classes influences the curriculum and schooling of the education system in that given society. That is, for a capitalist society, which is likely to have most of the social classes founded on the issues and concepts of capitalism, the education curriculum is also likely to have capitalist approaches. As such, the social classes have the greater power in the influence of activities or sectors such as education in the system. Education forms one of the pivotal institutions in sociology. Most individuals do not have the developed instincts, technology, and the knowledge necessary for the simplification of societal issues. In the recent past, the family was responsible for the transformation of education in the society to facilitate the gaining of knowledge. The transmission of education in the societies encompasses the teaching of the required skills for the survival of the societies. As such, due to the transition of the societies from agricultural to industrialized, the institution of education required immense transformation and improvement along with other elemental institutions, including economy, government, family, and religion (Lawton, 2008). Since the members of the common social unit, the family could not teach all that was necessary for the children to know, formal education, in terms of schooling was elemental in the recent past. Schooling has since developed with improved systems, which have speeded up the educational process among individuals of different social classes. Social classes in terms of cultural and material factors may influence education as well as the development of individuals or children in the societies. As such, with reference to social classes, the lower social classes are likely to suffer more from issues of material development, which can hold individuals back in terms of the education because of the insufficient or lack of access to essential resources in education, such as reduced spaces of personal study, computers or other elemental reading materials. In the extreme situations, individuals may have insufficient food or poor housing systems that influence the progress of these individuals. The effects of the deprivation of materials are cumulative. For this reason, the educational development and progress of individuals is greatly influenced by the social classes in which these individuals fall. In the ancient times, male education was preferred to female education. The social class of the females in terms of gender led to the development and dominance of the male figure in the society at the expense of the females. That is, most of the males in the societies were enlightened to factors affecting the societal progress as compared to the women. On the other hand, the individuals from the rich or enlightened social classes are important in influencing the education patterns and systems in the society. The richer individuals in the society are likely to have better education systems and more choices for the types of schools they can attend. Such individuals also have access to better systems of housing and food that minimize the constraints on the development of education. The cultural deprivation, which is an element of the social class, can influence the patterns and development of education in the society. For instance, individuals from the working class are likely to socialize into restricted codes of speeches and are less able to comprehend the educators at different education institutions compared to those in the middle social classes (PENSOLA & VALKONEN, 2002). Different social classes have different values in terms of the immediate gratification in the society. The cultural capital theory facilitates the understanding of the influence of the social class on education by suggesting that the background and the social class of individuals matters largely. The theory postulates that the social class of individuals has immense value and impact on the formation or establishment of individuals within the society. The society being an institution with a variation of individuals in these societies, people tend to take various forms and fit in groups that they deem essential for their existence and survival throughout the society. These groups are formed based on the political, economic, ideological, economic viewpoints of individuals within the societies. These viewpoints and ideologies represent the significance that these people have the significant concepts and institutions such as education (Smith et al., 2011). The impact of social class on education encompasses when these groups and the activities they engage in define the kind of individuals they are. The social class encompasses such aspects as lack of the social capital to fund the education development, the lack of cultural capital, the underachievement of the working class, the restricted coded in language, the subcultures of the working classes, the material factors such as sickness, poor diet, lack of space of working, and the teacher or educator evaluations, including streamlining labeling and stereotyping. Material factors, factors within the education systems, and cultural factors are some of the groups of elements in the social class issues that interrelate with the institution of education. The material factors encompass the elements that explain how the economic and social institution can affect the development of individuals in the education sector. The lower class individuals are likely to have poor conditions of housing, which can lead to lower attainments. The poor diets of the working classes can lead to instances of damaged development in the cognitive aspects of education. The low income that most of the individuals in these social classes means that the learning or educational resources such as books or internet research cannot be bought, which affects the progress of education in the societies (Sonne-Holm & Sørensen, 2006). The lower and some of the middle class individuals can have difficulties in affording the higher education. Some schools and education institutions in the societies are dependent on the donations and funds from the parents or the stakeholders of the societies in which they exist. For this reason, if the society itself encompasses low class and middle-class groups of individuals who are less affluent in terms of the financial resources will receive fewer funds, which translate to the poor or sluggish development of education. Parental interest in the education of their children also comes with the social class stratification. Most the parents from the high social classes are likely to have more interest in the education of their children because of the level of their enlightenment than the middle and lower class. For this reason, this interest translates to the level of importance or the degree of development of the children in these regions. The attitudes of the social classes are elemental in relation to the formation and progress of the education systems in the society (Weis & Dolby, 2012). Different social classes have different social perspectives and viewpoints as well as attitudes towards aspects such as education. For this reason, the degree of exposure and enlightenment is likely to affect how these individuals perceive education in the society. Nevertheless, education is important in reducing the effects of the differences between the social classes in the societies. It acts as a bridge between the social classes and the differences between these classes as regards the promotion of education in the society. Social class and education is important in societies because they promote societal, economic, and political growth.

Lawton, D. (2008). Social class, language and education. London: Routledge & K. Paul. PENSOLA, T. H., & VALKONEN, T. (2002). Effect of parental social class, own education and social class on mortality among young men. European Journal of Public Health. doi:10.1093/eurpub/12.1.29 Smith, G. D., Hart, C., Hole, D., MacKinnon, P., Gillis, C., Watt, G., . . . Hawthorne, V. (2011). Education and occupational social class: which is the more important indicator of mortality risk? Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. doi:10.1136/jech.52.3.153 Sonne-Holm, S., & Sørensen, T. I. (2006). Prospective study of attainment of social class of severely obese subjects in relation to parental social class, intelligence, and education. British Medical Journal. doi:10.1136/bmj.292.6520.586 Weis, L., & Dolby, N. (2012). Social class and education: Global perspectives. New York: Routledge.

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