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Library Research Guide for the History of Science: Introduction

  • What is a Secondary Source?
  • Senior Theses 2023
  • Background and Context/Biography
  • Exploring Your Topic
  • Using HOLLIS

Page Contents

Recognizing secondary sources, find secondary sources, finding bibliographies.

  • What is a Primary Source?
  • Exploring the Special Collections at Harvard
  • Citing Sources & Organizing Research
  • Recognizing Secondary Sources
  • Finding Secondary Sources

Secondary sources were created by someone who did not experience first-hand or participate in the events or conditions you’re researching. For a historical research project, secondary sources are generally scholarly books and articles.

A secondary source interprets and analyzes primary sources. These sources are one or more steps removed from the event. Secondary sources may contain pictures, quotes or graphics of primary sources.

Some types of secondary source include:  Textbooks; journal articles; histories; criticisms; commentaries; encyclopedias 

Examples of secondary sources include:

  • A scholarly article about water and bathing in Mexico City, 1850-1920
  • A book about the psychological effects of WWI
  • A 2019 U.S. government document examining the work of African Americans at two Manhattan Project sites
  • An NPR piece on race and vaccine skepticism

For a historical research project, secondary sources are usually scholarly books and articles, but as you can see from this list there are other possibilties.

History of Science, Technology and Medicine (Harvard Login)  (1975- ) is an index of books, book chapters, and journal articles. Some social sciences material is included. 

  • HSTM is an amalgamation of four separate indexes with four different subject term systems; study the results of keyword searches to be sure that you know the proper subject terms for your topic in each of the, possibly four, relevant component databases. For example, the Wellcome Bibliography uses "Contraception" but the Isis Current Bibliography uses "Birth control".
  • If you want to limit the coverage of your sources to a particular era, put one of these terms in a search box:  Antiquity or Ancient - “Greek and Roman” - “Middle Ages” or medieval - 13th  century - 14th century - 15 th  century - 16 th  century - 17th century - 18th century - 19th century - 20th century
  • More detailed information about the use of this complex database.

ISISCB Bibliographic Resources in the History of Science, Technology and Medicine  indexes the Isis Current Bibliography.  Search results extend back to 1970.  It also offers a browse of the  Isis Cumulative Bibliographies  (1913-1975).  Search ISISCB Explore

PubMed (Harvard Login for full text access)  (1947- ) is the National Library of Medicine's index to biomedical journal articles.

  • To limit to historical sources, attach the phrase (in"") "historical article" to your search. Example: "Psychology, clinical" and "historical article".
  • Be sure to look for MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) on pertinent records by scrolling down past the abstracts. (Not all records in PubMed have MeSH terms.) Subject headings can help you get to more relevant records and/or can be helpful keyword suggestions.

America: History and Life (Harvard login)  is the primary bibliographic reference to the history of the United States and Canada from prehistory to the present.

Historical Abstracts (Harvard Login)  is a reference guide to the history of the world from 1450 to the present (excluding the United States and Canada, which are covered in America: History and Life, above).

  • Both allow coverage date limitations as well as publication date limitations, Can usually use LC terms, not always 

Bibliography of British and Irish History (Harvard Login)  provides bibliographic data on historical writing dealing with the British Isles, and with the British empire and commonwealth, during all periods for which written documentation is available - from 55BC to the present.

  • At the link above, choose BBIH from the top row of options.

The Forest History Society Research Portal  offers over 45,000 citations to published items on environmental history, over 30,000 photographs, and other material.

Web of Science Citation Indexes (Harvard Login)  (for historical articles1956- ) includes articles in all areas of science. You can use the Cited Reference Search in Web of Science to find secondary source articles that cite a specified secondary or primary source article or book. More information .

Library Guide to the History of Science Your guide to the History of Science at Harvard. It has more extensive lists of resources and tools than this introductory guide does.

There may already be a detailed list of sources, a bibliography, for your topic. Bibliographies don't always come at the end of a paper- many are independent works of their own, full of recommended sources on any given topic.

For example:

  • Microbes and Minie Balls: An Annotated Bibliography of Civil War Medicine (Print Only) , by F. R. Freemon. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1993, 253 pp.                          
  • Annotated Bibliography on Medical Research in the South Pacific (Harvard login for HathiTrust full text), by Norman-Taylor, William, South Pacific Commission, 1963. 371pp.

Look for specialized subject bibliographies: search, e.g., <"science and state" AND China AND bibliography>   in HOLLIS  and WorldCat (advanced search). Note:The word Bibliography must be searched as a Subject keyword.

If you find an older article or book in a bibliography, you can use the Cited Reference Search in Web of Science to find more recent articles by seeing who has cited it.   If you have a bibliography of primary sources, then the Web of Science can be used to find secondary sources that cite a specified primary source. See Searching the Citation Indexes (Web of Science) .

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History research seminar: best practices for students.

  • Choosing Topics
  • "Unconventional" Primary Sources
  • The Role of Secondary Sources
  • Should I use a Block Quote?

Secondary Sources

As upper-level history students, you will have learned about, searched for, and used secondary sources in previous research assignments. Building on your previous experience, finding secondary sources for History Research Seminars papers on independent/original topics will feel a little bit different.

Why is this? This is because secondary sources here should be centered within the discipline of History and this will requires that you use unfamiliar Library Databases and some advanced search and filter settings. This is also because your research question and arguments will be narrower than in previous papers, for example Women Artists situated with Irish History, and this may make it difficult to notice useful books or journal articles by their titles or abstracts alone. Finally, your professors may recommend scholarly authors to read, and and this may require some additional skills in finding and accessing these specific sources. 

More about the types of secondary sources we're talking about:

Scholarly books are written by a specialist and intended for other specialists in the field. They provide In-depth research on large topics, which can include analysis of an issue's context and consequences, comparison of multiple views, or broad interdisciplinary approaches to a topic as well as historical information. You can identify these by their publishers, usually a university press (like our own UC Press) or a dedicated academic publishing company. However, even mainstream popular presses occasionally publish academic works. Look for these signs of "scholarliness:"*

Before you start searching databases: Explore your syllabus for recommended books. Your professor, once they know the topic you're workign on, may recommend authors or books to start with. This is something to work on right away: Finding these right away and quicky aquinat yourself with the book looking for background information; primary sources they uses; their questions and arguments. You can do this by skimming.

Likewise, you can also get a background by reading a relevant and short encyclopedia entry. Wikipedia is okay, but its entries often do not reference the most recent scholarship and its bibliography frequently leaves out key sources. you will be better served by an encyclopedia from an Academic Press, which will be written by a scholar familiar with all the most important works for you to know. This is a quick way to read an overview of the topic and quickly shift to getting started on your research.

From there, you can expand your search for books by using UC Library Search . Sign in for full access. Some books will be in the Library, and you'll need to pick these up off the shelf. Some books will be availabel as eBooks (if you have problems, use the Ask Us button to report problems). Some books might need to be "Requested through InterLibrary Loan." Use the opens on the left of the page to see books at other UCs, like Berkeley or Los Angeles.

Articles in Peer Reviewed Journals are shorter in length because they often exclude background information and explanations. These provide narrowly focused analysis, detailed findings from individual studies, and the latest information on a topic. Because of this, they can prove useful, after you've narrowed down your topic and need to find very specific information.*

Journal articles are interesting because they're more closely aligned with the research you're doing in this course. The main exception is that the authors have, to an extent, mastered the core texts in their field study (as part of their PhD work and beyond), and their interaction with primary sources are deeper (they may travel to archives and they may have extended time with the primary sources under study).

Their narrowness and uniqueness sometimes makes them harder to engage with for use in research papers. The ways they are useful is that they can inform use of methods they used to read or evaluate primary sources; they can shed light on the topic through their interpretations and arguments; or you can read these and think about what's missing in their work that you'd like to show in your work or analysis. Therefore, a journal article need not be exactly on your topic, for example they could an approach to reading primary sources that you want to mirror or they could make an argument that you agree with or disagree with and so on. This is more than just mining for quotes to make your paragraph sound better. Read and reflect on their research and where your work sits in comparison.  

For finding, you may already have go tos. What are these for you? For some it's often just Google (in which case, have you heard of Google Scholar ) or JSTOR . Some other database search engines to use include Web of Science (which includes a very neat "cited by" tool); the new UC Library Search allow you to narrow to peer reviewed articles (but this is a good last resort tool); America History and Life or Historical Abstracts or Periodicals Archive Online are also quite useful. Depending on the area of study of your course, there may be other databases out there, for example HAPI (Hispanic American Periodicals Index) . 

*Borrows from  Articles, Books, and . . . ? Understanding the Many Types of Information Found in Libraries

  • How to Read an Academic Paper
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secondary sources history research paper

Research Help for History Students: Secondary Sources

  • Focusing Your Topic
  • Finding Primary Sources
  • Secondary Sources - Books
  • Secondary Sources - Articles
  • Finding Secondary Sources
  • Historiography
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  • Citation Resources This link opens in a new window

What is a secondary source?

While the bulk of your research will often come from  primary  sources,  you will also need  secondary sources  to support your arguments and claims in your paper.  

Secondary sources use primary sources to analyze and make arguments about the past.  They are generally written by a scholar who did  not  experience the event they are describing. These sources can take many forms depending on the discipline, but for history they are generally books and articles.  

Now, as you may already know, not all books and articles are considered worthy sources for a paper.  The sub-pages to this section will go in to more detail on what is considered a good source and what should be pushed aside.

                                    BOOK                                                                                                                              ARTICLE

Image result for a concise history of the french revolution sylvia neely

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Print books in the library, secondary sources.

What is a secondary source?

 A secondary source is a scholarly discussion based on primary sources. Typically, a secondary source contains original research.

Why should I use secondary sources?

Secondary sources are useful for in-depth analysis of your topic and for learning about scholarly perspectives on your topic. You can use a secondary source as a conversation partner about a topic or you can take the methodology from a secondary source an apply it to a new research question.

What are some examples of secondary sources?

Secondary sources include articles, blogs, books (often called monographs), lectures, podcasts, and scientific reports. Any kind of scholarly liter can be a secondary source.

Pro tip:  Although the distinction between primary sources and secondary sources is useful, it is not absolute. A secondary source may become a primary source depending on the researcher's perspective. Consider a textbook on American history from the 1990's. If a researcher uses the textbook for a scholarly perspective on the civil rights movement, then it is a secondary source. However, if the researcher uses the textbook to as evidence of curriculum in the 1990's, then it is a primary soruce.

  • Academic Search Premier Multi-disciplinary | Index and some full text | Scholarly literature
  • AfricaBib.org African studies | Index | Journal articles
  • America: History & Life History of United States and Canada | Index and some full text | Scholarly literature
  • Arts & Humanities Citation Index Multi-disciplinary | Index and citation tracker | Scholarly literature
  • Arts & Humanities Database Multi-disciplinary | Index and some full text | Scholarly literature
  • HAPI Online Focus on Central and South America | Index and some full text | Scholarly literature
  • Historical abstracts World history excluding North America | Index and some full text | Scholarly literature
  • JSTOR Multi-disciplinary | Index and some full text | Scholarly literature
  • Scopus Multi-disciplinary | Index and citation tracker | Journal articles
  • ProQuest Dissertations & Theses (PQDT) Multi-disciplinary | Index and some full text | Dissertations and theses
  • Race Relations Abstracts Interdisciplinary focus on race and ethnicity | Index and some full text | Scholarly literature
  • Middle East and Africa Database Focus on the Middle East and Africa | Index and some full text | Scholarly and popular literature

Browsing the library stacks can be a useful way of finding relevant resources. The following is a guide to how history books are organized in the library stacks according to the Library of Congress system. For more complete details, see the Library of Congress Classification Outline .

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Library Research for Undergraduate History Students: An Introduction

  • Starting Points

What are Secondary Sources?

How do i find secondary sources, sources from other subject areas.

  • Primary Sources
  • Constructing Your Paper
  • Video Tutorials
  • Return to HPNL Website

Ask a Librarian

Secondary sources   are the published work of scholars specializing in the topic. Secondary sources include scholarly books, articles, and essays (both analyses by contemporary scholars as well as older analyses), surveys, criticism, comparative studies, reference sources, and works on theory and methodology; this is also termed the secondary literature . Eventually you will need to decide which interpretation makes the most sense to you and seems consistent with your primary sources, or if you wish to offer a new interpretation. 

When we talk about secondary sources, most of the time we are referring to published scholarship on a subject, rather than supplemental material (bibliographies, encyclopedias, handbooks, etc.). Secondary literature is published in both book form and as articles in periodicals, either in print or digital format. (Digital format includes both reproduction of print material online and original e-text.) This scholarship is analytical and interpretive. It may synthesize the work of other historians to present a totally new interpretation. More likely, it offers a new reading of previously analyzed sources or presents an analysis of previously unknown sources.

Hence, you use secondary sources to identify the main currents of thought on your topic . Which historians have taken up this topic and what were their main arguments? How has our understanding of the subject changed with shifts in the predominant methodologies and theoretical perspectives in the historical profession?

To identify secondary literature, you can search the  online library catalog  to find books or search  article databases and online bibliographies  to find journal articles, book chapters, dissertations and more. Some useful article databases for history are:

Help & Support Information

  • L'Année philologique This link opens in a new window Online searchable database comprised of the print index begun in 1928 by Jules Marouzeau. Vols. 20- of the original print index are currently, with earler vols. to be digitized in the future. Indexes periodical articles as well as articles in collections and conference papers in classics and classical studies. Covers Greek and Latin linguistics and literature and Greek and Roman archaeology, history, mythology, religion, epigraphy, numismatics and palaeography: all aspects of the ancient Mediterranean world.
  • Brepolis Medieval and Early Modern Bibliographies This link opens in a new window The Brepolis Medieval and Early Modern Bibliographies are multidisciplinary bibliographies of Europe, North Africa and the Near East (300-1500), founded in 1967 with the aim of providing a comprehensive, current bibliography of articles in journals and miscellany volumes (conference proceedings, essay collections or Festschriften) worldwide. The bibliographies comprise 365,000 articles, all of which are fully classified by date, subject and location, and provide full bibliographical records.
  • Historical Abstracts with Full Text This link opens in a new window Covers the history of the world (excluding the United States and Canada) from 1450 to the present, including world history, military history, women's history, history of education, and more. Provides indexing of more than 1,700 academic historical journals in over 40 languages back to 1955. more... less... Alternate Access Link
  • America: History & Life with Full Text This link opens in a new window Index of literature covering the history and culture of the United States and Canada, from prehistory to the present. The database indexes journals from 1964 to present and includes citations and links to book and media reviews. more... less... Alternate Access Link
  • Hispanic American Periodicals Index (HAPI) This link opens in a new window Contains citations to articles in more than 400 scholarly journals published in Latin America or treating Latin American and U.S. Hispanic topics.
  • Bibliography of Asian Studies This link opens in a new window This on-line version of the Bibliography of Asian Studies (BAS) contains 787,165 records on all subjects (especially in the humanities and the social sciences) pertaining to East, Southeast, and South Asia published worldwide from 1971 to the present... In addition to entries compiled since 1997, the online BAS includes the full data of all of the printed volumes of the BAS issued from the 1971 up to the 1991 volumes (published in 1997)... Through the 1991 printed volume, the BAS included citations to Western-language periodical articles, monographs, chapters in edited volumes, conference proceedings, anthologies, and Festschriften, etc. Monographs published since 1992, however, have not been added to the database, and users seeking such monographs are urged to consult other general resources and databases such as WorldCat.. more... less... Alternate Access Link
  • American Bibliography of Slavic and East European Studies This link opens in a new window Covers North American scholarship on East-Central Europe, Russia, and the former Soviet Union. Contains bibliographic records for journal articles, books and book chapters, book reviews, dissertations, online resources, and selected government publications. more... less... Alternate Access Link

Additional suggestions can be found in the research guides created for history classes and special topics .

You can also consult book-length bibliographies , either general overviews such as the American Historical Association Guide to Historical Literature, or specialized bibliographies such as  The Harvard Guide to African-American History .

You can use the article databases listed above to look for review essays (also called review articles ) in which a historian who specializes in the subject analyzes recent scholarship; you may find helpful overviews that appear as chapters in collections, journal articles, or even monographs by using the keyword historiography or historiographic ; you can read about the topic in a subject encyclopedia and look at the bibliography at the end of the entry; and you can find a major work of scholarship on the topic and follow up on the sources used by the author ( footnote tracking ).

Most of the time you will find the secondary literature you need by using the online catalog, the appropriate article databases, subject encyclopedias or bibliographies, and by consulting your instructor.

Most academic research today is at least somewhat interdisciplinary . For historians, theories and methods are sometimes borrowed from other disciplines such as philosophy, literary criticism, and anthropology.

Furthermore, the publications compiled in the service of other disciplines very often serve as valuable source material for historians .

Check these links for helpful introductions to research resources for related disciplines:

African American Research Center

Online Resources for Religious Studies

Philosophy Library Resource Guide

Social Sciences, Health, and Education Library (SSHEL) :

  • American Indian Studies
  • Anthropology
  • Asian American Studies
  • Biomedical Sciences
  • Community/Public Health
  • Gender & Women's Studies
  • Geography & Geographic Information Science
  • Library & Information Science
  • Political Science
  • Recreation, Sport & Tourism
  • Social Work

International and Area Studies Library

Literatures and Languages Library (includes Classics Collection)

Map Library

Music and Performing Arts Library

Ricker Architecture and Art Library

Funk (ACES) Library

  • Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences (ACES)
  • City Planning and Landscape Architecture
  • Prairie Research Institute
  • Agricultural Communications Documentation Center
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  • Last Updated: Feb 6, 2024 1:02 PM
  • URL: https://guides.library.illinois.edu/historicalresearch

Western Carolina University

American History: Find Secondary Sources (scholarly articles & books)

  • Find Secondary Sources (scholarly articles & books)
  • Find Primary Sources

Library Catalog

The Library Catalog is almost always the most useful place to start history research because:

  • It will help you find primary AND secondary sources
  • The library has a wealth of resources that have been selected by your professors and librarians 
  • Library Catalog This link opens in a new window You can also access the Library Catalog via the Books link on the library webpage.

Find Articles (History Quick Search)

Find Articles and Book Chapters: 

The search box above will lead you to articles in JSTOR, Project Muse, Academic Search Complete, and other scholarly research databases.

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  • Last Updated: Jan 5, 2024 11:14 AM
  • URL: https://researchguides.wcu.edu/americanhistory

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  • Primary and Secondary Sources

History Department: Primary and Secondary Sources

  • History 300
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Primary Sources Tips

Analyzing a primary source is like conducting an investigation - you have to be actively asking questions of it and looking at it through a critical lens. Some questions (of hundreds of possible questions) are: What is the document type (diary, transcript etc)? How does this type of document affect its purpose? Who wrote this document? Why did the author write this document? What is the context of the document (what was happening in that period of history)? In a lot of ways, being a historian is like being a detective. Think of each primary source you read as a character you must thouroughly interview, and your goal is to piece together all the various accounts in order to build and understand the greater story.

Handwriting in Primary Sources

Reading handwriting from a different time period can often feel like you're reading a different language (even if it is in English.) Below are some links to online websites that will give some useful tips for reading handwritten primary sources. In addition to these links, here are a few conventions to remember:

-writing may go on the edges of the paper to conserve paper -capitalization may appear to be random, but it's used to emphasis words -names may also be abbreviated

  • Palaeography: reading old handwriting from 1500- 1800
  • English script tutorial
  • 18th Century British/American Handwriting

The discipline of history is rooted in sources, and being able to differentiate between primary, secondary and tertiary documents is a key component of  history research and writing. This page will provide some useful links and information to aid in document analysis.

Primary Sources

A primary source is an original work - it can be diaries, letters, images, recordings, etc. These sources are what provide the data, the words, images or even sounds that you use as evidence to support your arguements. This data can also be artifacts from a time period or person.

*text adapted from Kate Turabian's, A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations , 7th edition

Secondary Sources

A secondary source is a book or article that analyzes the primary sources written by and for other researchers. Generally, secondary sources are used for three main reasons: to keep up with current research, to find and understand alternative points of view, and/or to find models for your own research and analysis.

Tertiary Sources

A tertiary source are based on secondary sources and are usually focused on general, background knowledge of a topic. These are usually encyclopedias, dictionaries or could be newspapers or magazines. Be very cautious when examining these sources, especially online encyclopedia's such as Wikipedia. Typically, only visit tertiary sources when you are new to a topic and need to gain a subject overview.

Secondary Source Tips

Just because its in a book doesn't mean it's a fact, and its the job of the researcher to evaluate the reliabliity of secondary sources. To do this, be sure to ask: -Is the author a reputable scholar? -Is the source current? -Is the publisher a university press or a commercial press? -Was the article/book peer-reviewed? -Has it received a good book review? -Does the author properly cite the sources? These measurements do not garuntee academic reliablity, but can weed out the vast majority of non-reliable secondary sources.

What is a 'peer-reviewed' source?

A peer-reviewed source, commonly called a scholarly article, is a source that appears in a scholarly journal or from a university press. It is called 'peer-reviewed' because before being published it underwent a reviewing process by fellow experts in that topic. These journals, unlike popular magazines or newspapers, are :

-written by accredited experts in the field, -usually over 10 pages in length, -contain footnotes/endnotes, -published annually, quarterly, monthly. -printed by an academic press

Questions about this page can be directed to Tom Reich ( [email protected] )

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*History Research Guide*

  • Develop Your Topic
  • A to Z Databases This link opens in a new window
  • Primary/Secondary Sources
  • Evaluate Sources
  • Finding Statistics
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More History Resources

  • Illinois State Archives
  • Illinois State Historical Society
  • Historical Maps of the U.S.

Primary vs. Secondary Sources and Content

Primary sources.

  • First-hand accounts by people who experienced event.
  • A person's account of own feelings, actions, or experiences.
  • Object or document that comes directly from person, place, or event being researched.

Secondary Sources

  • Second-hand accounts by people who did not experience event.
  • One person's account of someone else's feelings, actions, or experiences.
  • Object or document that originates much later than person, place, or event being researched.
  • Contains INTERPRETATIONS, analysis, synthesis.

Content Versus Format

Is a newspaper always primary, and is a book always secondary? NO. "Primary" and "secondary" relate to the CONTENT, not the format.

Primary sources often appear in document types such as letters and newspapers, but a source doesn't have to be primary just because of its format. The same is true of sources on paper versus sources on the Internet, and sources which are duplicated as they appear (by scanning or photographing) versus sources which are transcribed (retyped word for word in plain text) -- it's the content that counts.

It's all about context!

There is nothing inherent in a document or object that automatically makes it always be "primary" or "secondary." Your research question determines whether the source is primary or secondary for your research. The same document could be a primary source for one paper and a secondary source for another paper.

Example : 1975 biography about Abraham Lincoln would probably be a:

  • Secondary source if you are studying Lincoln’s life.
  • Primary source if you are studying how people wrote historical biographies in the 1970s.

Library of Congress: Primary Sources

  • Library of Congress Main site. Our nation's oldest federal cultural institution and serves as the research institution for Congress. Largest library in the world, with millions of books, recordings, photographs, maps and manuscripts in its collections.
  • American Memory Provides free and open access through the Internet to written and spoken words, sound recordings, still and moving images, prints, maps, and sheet music that document the American experience. A digital record of American history and creativity.

The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA)

  • The National Archives (main site) "The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) is the nation's record keeper. Of all documents and materials created in the course of business conducted by the United States Federal government, only 1%-3% are so important for legal or historical reasons that they are kept by us forever. more... less... Those valuable records are preserved and are available to you, whether you want to see if they contain clues about your family's history, need to prove a veteran's military service, or are researching an historical topic that interests you.
  • National Archives Online Exhibits Online access to primary sources on a wide range of topics such as the 1906 San Francisco Earthquake, President Johnson's diaries, the Civil War, eyewitness accounts of memorable U.S. history events . . .
  • Presidential Libraries and Museums of the National Archives SCROLL DOWN this page for direct links to specific presidential libraries.
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  • Last Updated: Feb 16, 2024 3:04 PM
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University Library

Types of Sources and Where to Find Them: Secondary Sources

This is the second video in a two-part tutorial on primary and secondary sources. Historians and other scholars classify sources as primary or secondary. Whereas primary sources are considered the raw material of the historical record, and are usually created around the same time as the events they purport to document, secondary sources are further removed from these historical events or circumstances. Typically, secondary sources offer an interpretation of the past based on analysis and synthesis of primary sources.

Examples of secondary sources include:

  • surveys of broad historical periods,
  • works that focus on specific events or topics,
  • literary and cultural criticism,
  • and works on theory and methodology.

Secondary sources can be found in books, journals, or Internet resources.

When we talk about secondary sources, most of the time we are referring to the published scholarship on a subject, rather than supplementary material like bibliographies, encyclopedias, handbooks, and so forth. These supplementary materials are sometimes referred to as tertiary sources.

A secondary source is analytical and interpretive. It may offer a new reading of historical events and primary sources that have been analyzed before, or present an analysis of events and sources that were previously unknown or not written about. A secondary source might also synthesize the work of other historians in order to formulate a totally new interpretation. You will use secondary sources to identify the main currents of thought on your topic, and to answer questions, like:

  • Which historians have taken up this topic?
  • What were their main arguments?
  • How have historians’ understanding of the topic changed over time?

To identify secondary literature, you can do subject searches in the library catalog to find books, or subject searches in article databases to find articles. The most important databases for finding peer-reviewed articles by historians are: America: History and Life, which covers the history of North America and Historical Abstracts, which covers the rest of the world since 1450. You can also consult standard published bibliographies, like the American Historical Association’s Guide to Historical Literature, or specialized bibliographies, like this bibliography of medieval warfare. You may find more lengthy treatments of the topic published as book chapters, journal articles, or even as individual monographs. You can read about the topic in a subject encyclopedia and look at the bibliography at the end of the entry. You can find a major work of scholarship on the topic, and follow up on the sources used by the author.

Most of the time you will find the secondary literature you need by using

  • the library catalog,
  • the appropriate article databases,
  • subject encyclopedias,
  • bibliographies,
  • and by consulting with your instructor.

Remember to keep track of all the sources you’ve used. At some point, you’ll want to list them in a bibliography of your own.

A Step-by-Step Guide to Doing Historical Research [without getting hysterical!] In addition to being a scholarly investigation, research is a social activity intended to create new knowledge. Historical research is your informed response to the questions that you ask while examining the record of human experience. These questions may concern such elements as looking at an event or topic, examining events that lead to the event in question, social influences, key players, and other contextual information. This step-by-step guide progresses from an introduction to historical resources to information about how to identify a topic, craft a thesis and develop a research paper. Table of contents: The Range and Richness of Historical Sources Secondary Sources Primary Sources Historical Analysis What is it? Who, When, Where, What and Why: The Five "W"s Topic, Thesis, Sources Definition of Terms Choose a Topic Craft a Thesis Evaluate Thesis and Sources A Variety of Information Sources Take Efficient Notes Note Cards Thinking, Organizing, Researching Parenthetical Documentation Prepare a Works Cited Page Drafting, Revising, Rewriting, Rethinking For Further Reading: Works Cited Additional Links So you want to study history?! Tons of help and links Slatta Home Page Use the Writing and other links on the lefhand menu I. The Range and Richness of Historical Sources Back to Top Every period leaves traces, what historians call "sources" or evidence. Some are more credible or carry more weight than others; judging the differences is a vital skill developed by good historians. Sources vary in perspective, so knowing who created the information you are examining is vital. Anonymous doesn't make for a very compelling source. For example, an FBI report on the antiwar movement, prepared for U.S. President Richard Nixon, probably contained secrets that at the time were thought to have affected national security. It would not be usual, however, for a journalist's article about a campus riot, featured in a local newspaper, to leak top secret information. Which source would you read? It depends on your research topic. If you're studying how government officials portrayed student activists, you'll want to read the FBI report and many more documents from other government agencies such as the CIA and the National Security Council. If you're investigating contemporary opinion of pro-war and anti-war activists, local newspaper accounts provide a rich resource. You'd want to read a variety of newspapers to ensure you're covering a wide range of opinions (rural/urban, left/right, North/South, Soldier/Draft-dodger, etc). Historians classify sources into two major categories: primary and secondary sources. Secondary Sources Back to Top Definition: Secondary sources are created by someone who was either not present when the event occurred or removed from it in time. We use secondary sources for overview information, to familiarize ourselves with a topic, and compare that topic with other events in history. In refining a research topic, we often begin with secondary sources. This helps us identify gaps or conflicts in the existing scholarly literature that might prove promsing topics. Types: History books, encyclopedias, historical dictionaries, and academic (scholarly) articles are secondary sources. To help you determine the status of a given secondary source, see How to identify and nagivate scholarly literature . Examples: Historian Marilyn Young's (NYU) book about the Vietnam War is a secondary source. She did not participate in the war. Her study is not based on her personal experience but on the evidence she culled from a variety of sources she found in the United States and Vietnam. Primary Sources Back to Top Definition: Primary sources emanate from individuals or groups who participated in or witnessed an event and recorded that event during or immediately after the event. They include speeches, memoirs, diaries, letters, telegrams, emails, proclamations, government documents, and much more. Examples: A student activist during the war writing about protest activities has created a memoir. This would be a primary source because the information is based on her own involvement in the events she describes. Similarly, an antiwar speech is a primary source. So is the arrest record of student protesters. A newspaper editorial or article, reporting on a student demonstration is also a primary source. II. Historical Analysis What is it? Back to Top No matter what you read, whether it's a primary source or a secondary source, you want to know who authored the source (a trusted scholar? A controversial historian? A propagandist? A famous person? An ordinary individual?). "Author" refers to anyone who created information in any medium (film, sound, or text). You also need to know when it was written and the kind of audience the author intend to reach. You should also consider what you bring to the evidence that you examine. Are you inductively following a path of evidence, developing your interpretation based on the sources? Do you have an ax to grind? Did you begin your research deductively, with your mind made up before even seeing the evidence. Historians need to avoid the latter and emulate the former. To read more about the distinction, examine the difference between Intellectual Inquirers and Partisan Ideologues . In the study of history, perspective is everything. A letter written by a twenty- year old Vietnam War protestor will differ greatly from a letter written by a scholar of protest movements. Although the sentiment might be the same, the perspective and influences of these two authors will be worlds apart. Practicing the " 5 Ws " will avoid the confusion of the authority trap. Who, When, Where, What and Why: The Five "W"s Back to Top Historians accumulate evidence (information, including facts, stories, interpretations, opinions, statements, reports, etc.) from a variety of sources (primary and secondary). They must also verify that certain key pieces of information are corroborated by a number of people and sources ("the predonderance of evidence"). The historian poses the " 5 Ws " to every piece of information he examines: Who is the historical actor? When did the event take place? Where did it occur? What did it entail and why did it happen the way it did? The " 5 Ws " can also be used to evaluate a primary source. Who authored the work? When was it created? Where was it created, published, and disseminated? Why was it written (the intended audience), and what is the document about (what points is the author making)? If you know the answers to these five questions, you can analyze any document, and any primary source. The historian doesn't look for the truth, since this presumes there is only one true story. The historian tries to understand a number of competing viewpoints to form his or her own interpretation-- what constitutes the best explanation of what happened and why. By using as wide a range of primary source documents and secondary sources as possible, you will add depth and richness to your historical analysis. The more exposure you, the researcher, have to a number of different sources and differing view points, the more you have a balanced and complete view about a topic in history. This view will spark more questions and ultimately lead you into the quest to unravel more clues about your topic. You are ready to start assembling information for your research paper. III. Topic, Thesis, Sources Definition of Terms Back to Top Because your purpose is to create new knowledge while recognizing those scholars whose existing work has helped you in this pursuit, you are honor bound never to commit the following academic sins: Plagiarism: Literally "kidnapping," involving the use of someone else's words as if they were your own (Gibaldi 6). To avoid plagiarism you must document direct quotations, paraphrases, and original ideas not your own. Recycling: Rehashing material you already know thoroughly or, without your professor's permission, submitting a paper that you have completed for another course. Premature cognitive commitment: Academic jargon for deciding on a thesis too soon and then seeking information to serve that thesis rather than embarking on a genuine search for new knowledge. Choose a Topic Back to Top "Do not hunt for subjects, let them choose you, not you them." --Samuel Butler Choosing a topic is the first step in the pursuit of a thesis. Below is a logical progression from topic to thesis: Close reading of the primary text, aided by secondary sources Growing awareness of interesting qualities within the primary text Choosing a topic for research Asking productive questions that help explore and evaluate a topic Creating a research hypothesis Revising and refining a hypothesis to form a working thesis First, and most important, identify what qualities in the primary or secondary source pique your imagination and curiosity and send you on a search for answers. Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive levels provides a description of productive questions asked by critical thinkers. While the lower levels (knowledge, comprehension) are necessary to a good history essay, aspire to the upper three levels (analysis, synthesis, evaluation). Skimming reference works such as encyclopedias, books, critical essays and periodical articles can help you choose a topic that evolves into a hypothesis, which in turn may lead to a thesis. One approach to skimming involves reading the first paragraph of a secondary source to locate and evaluate the author's thesis. Then for a general idea of the work's organization and major ideas read the first and last sentence of each paragraph. Read the conclusion carefully, as it usually presents a summary (Barnet and Bedau 19). Craft a Thesis Back to Top Very often a chosen topic is too broad for focused research. You must revise it until you have a working hypothesis, that is, a statement of an idea or an approach with respect to the source that could form the basis for your thesis. Remember to not commit too soon to any one hypothesis. Use it as a divining rod or a first step that will take you to new information that may inspire you to revise your hypothesis. Be flexible. Give yourself time to explore possibilities. The hypothesis you create will mature and shift as you write and rewrite your paper. New questions will send you back to old and on to new material. Remember, this is the nature of research--it is more a spiraling or iterative activity than a linear one. Test your working hypothesis to be sure it is: broad enough to promise a variety of resources. narrow enough for you to research in depth. original enough to interest you and your readers. worthwhile enough to offer information and insights of substance "do-able"--sources are available to complete the research. Now it is time to craft your thesis, your revised and refined hypothesis. A thesis is a declarative sentence that: focuses on one well-defined idea makes an arguable assertion; it is capable of being supported prepares your readers for the body of your paper and foreshadows the conclusion. Evaluate Thesis and Sources Back to Top Like your hypothesis, your thesis is not carved in stone. You are in charge. If necessary, revise it during the research process. As you research, continue to evaluate both your thesis for practicality, originality, and promise as a search tool, and secondary sources for relevance and scholarliness. The following are questions to ask during the research process: Are there many journal articles and entire books devoted to the thesis, suggesting that the subject has been covered so thoroughly that there may be nothing new to say? Does the thesis lead to stimulating, new insights? Are appropriate sources available? Is there a variety of sources available so that the bibliography or works cited page will reflect different kinds of sources? Which sources are too broad for my thesis? Which resources are too narrow? Who is the author of the secondary source? Does the critic's background suggest that he/she is qualified? After crafting a thesis, consider one of the following two approaches to writing a research paper: Excited about your thesis and eager to begin? Return to the primary or secondary source to find support for your thesis. Organize ideas and begin writing your first draft. After writing the first draft, have it reviewed by your peers and your instructor. Ponder their suggestions and return to the sources to answer still-open questions. Document facts and opinions from secondary sources. Remember, secondary sources can never substitute for primary sources. Confused about where to start? Use your thesis to guide you to primary and secondary sources. Secondary sources can help you clarify your position and find a direction for your paper. Keep a working bibliography. You may not use all the sources you record, but you cannot be sure which ones you will eventually discard. Create a working outline as you research. This outline will, of course, change as you delve more deeply into your subject. A Variety of Information Sources Back to Top "A mind that is stretched to a new idea never returns to its original dimension." --Oliver Wendell Holmes Your thesis and your working outline are the primary compasses that will help you navigate the variety of sources available. In "Introduction to the Library" (5-6) the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers suggests you become familiar with the library you will be using by: taking a tour or enrolling for a brief introductory lecture referring to the library's publications describing its resources introducing yourself and your project to the reference librarian The MLA Handbook also lists guides for the use of libraries (5), including: Jean Key Gates, Guide to the Use of Libraries and Information Sources (7th ed., New York: McGraw, 1994). Thomas Mann, A Guide to Library Research Methods (New York: Oxford UP, 1987). Online Central Catalog Most libraries have their holdings listed on a computer. The online catalog may offer Internet sites, Web pages and databases that relate to the university's curriculum. It may also include academic journals and online reference books. Below are three search techniques commonly used online: Index Search: Although online catalogs may differ slightly from library to library, the most common listings are by: Subject Search: Enter the author's name for books and article written about the author. Author Search: Enter an author's name for works written by the author, including collections of essays the author may have written about his/her own works. Title Search: Enter a title for the screen to list all the books the library carries with that title. Key Word Search/Full-text Search: A one-word search, e.g., 'Kennedy,' will produce an overwhelming number of sources, as it will call up any entry that includes the name 'Kennedy.' To focus more narrowly on your subject, add one or more key words, e.g., "John Kennedy, Peace Corps." Use precise key words. Boolean Search: Boolean Search techniques use words such as "and," "or," and "not," which clarify the relationship between key words, thus narrowing the search. Take Efficient Notes Back to Top Keeping complete and accurate bibliography and note cards during the research process is a time (and sanity) saving practice. If you have ever needed a book or pages within a book, only to discover that an earlier researcher has failed to return it or torn pages from your source, you understand the need to take good notes. Every researcher has a favorite method for taking notes. Here are some suggestions-- customize one of them for your own use. Bibliography cards There may be far more books and articles listed than you have time to read, so be selective when choosing a reference. Take information from works that clearly relate to your thesis, remembering that you may not use them all. Use a smaller or a different color card from the one used for taking notes. Write a bibliography card for every source. Number the bibliography cards. On the note cards, use the number rather than the author's name and the title. It's faster. Another method for recording a working bibliography, of course, is to create your own database. Adding, removing, and alphabetizing titles is a simple process. Be sure to save often and to create a back-up file. A bibliography card should include all the information a reader needs to locate that particular source for further study. Most of the information required for a book entry (Gibaldi 112): Author's name Title of a part of the book [preface, chapter titles, etc.] Title of the book Name of the editor, translator, or compiler Edition used Number(s) of the volume(s) used Name of the series Place of publication, name of the publisher, and date of publication Page numbers Supplementary bibliographic information and annotations Most of the information required for an article in a periodical (Gibaldi 141): Author's name Title of the article Name of the periodical Series number or name (if relevant) Volume number (for a scholarly journal) Issue number (if needed) Date of publication Page numbers Supplementary information For information on how to cite other sources refer to your So you want to study history page . Note Cards Back to Top Take notes in ink on either uniform note cards (3x5, 4x6, etc.) or uniform slips of paper. Devote each note card to a single topic identified at the top. Write only on one side. Later, you may want to use the back to add notes or personal observations. Include a topical heading for each card. Include the number of the page(s) where you found the information. You will want the page number(s) later for documentation, and you may also want page number(s)to verify your notes. Most novice researchers write down too much. Condense. Abbreviate. You are striving for substance, not quantity. Quote directly from primary sources--but the "meat," not everything. Suggestions for condensing information: Summary: A summary is intended to provide the gist of an essay. Do not weave in the author's choice phrases. Read the information first and then condense the main points in your own words. This practice will help you avoid the copying that leads to plagiarism. Summarizing also helps you both analyze the text you are reading and evaluate its strengths and weaknesses (Barnet and Bedau 13). Outline: Use to identify a series of points. Paraphrase, except for key primary source quotations. Never quote directly from a secondary source, unless the precise wording is essential to your argument. Simplify the language and list the ideas in the same order. A paraphrase is as long as the original. Paraphrasing is helpful when you are struggling with a particularly difficult passage. Be sure to jot down your own insights or flashes of brilliance. Ralph Waldo Emerson warns you to "Look sharply after your thoughts. They come unlooked for, like a new bird seen on your trees, and, if you turn to your usual task, disappear...." To differentiate these insights from those of the source you are reading, initial them as your own. (When the following examples of note cards include the researcher's insights, they will be followed by the initials N. R.) When you have finished researching your thesis and you are ready to write your paper, organize your cards according to topic. Notecards make it easy to shuffle and organize your source information on a table-- or across the floor. Maintain your working outline that includes the note card headings and explores a logical order for presenting them in your paper. IV. Begin Thinking, Researching, Organizing Back to Top Don't be too sequential. Researching, writing, revising is a complex interactive process. Start writing as soon as possible! "The best antidote to writer's block is--to write." (Klauser 15). However, you still feel overwhelmed and are staring at a blank page, you are not alone. Many students find writing the first sentence to be the most daunting part of the entire research process. Be creative. Cluster (Rico 28-49). Clustering is a form of brainstorming. Sometimes called a web, the cluster forms a design that may suggest a natural organization for a paper. Here's a graphical depiction of brainstorming . Like a sun, the generating idea or topic lies at the center of the web. From it radiate words, phrases, sentences and images that in turn attract other words, phrases, sentences and images. Put another way--stay focused. Start with your outline. If clustering is not a technique that works for you, turn to the working outline you created during the research process. Use the outline view of your word processor. If you have not already done so, group your note cards according to topic headings. Compare them to your outline's major points. If necessary, change the outline to correspond with the headings on the note cards. If any area seems weak because of a scarcity of facts or opinions, return to your primary and/or secondary sources for more information or consider deleting that heading. Use your outline to provide balance in your essay. Each major topic should have approximately the same amount of information. Once you have written a working outline, consider two different methods for organizing it. Deduction: A process of development that moves from the general to the specific. You may use this approach to present your findings. However, as noted above, your research and interpretive process should be inductive. Deduction is the most commonly used form of organization for a research paper. The thesis statement is the generalization that leads to the specific support provided by primary and secondary sources. The thesis is stated early in the paper. The body of the paper then proceeds to provide the facts, examples, and analogies that flow logically from that thesis. The thesis contains key words that are reflected in the outline. These key words become a unifying element throughout the paper, as they reappear in the detailed paragraphs that support and develop the thesis. The conclusion of the paper circles back to the thesis, which is now far more meaningful because of the deductive development that supports it. Chronological order A process that follows a traditional time line or sequence of events. A chronological organization is useful for a paper that explores cause and effect. Parenthetical Documentation Back to Top The Works Cited page, a list of primary and secondary sources, is not sufficient documentation to acknowledge the ideas, facts, and opinions you have included within your text. The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers describes an efficient parenthetical style of documentation to be used within the body of your paper. Guidelines for parenthetical documentation: "References to the text must clearly point to specific sources in the list of works cited" (Gibaldi 184). Try to use parenthetical documentation as little as possible. For example, when you cite an entire work, it is preferable to include the author's name in the text. The author's last name followed by the page number is usually enough for an accurate identification of the source in the works cited list. These examples illustrate the most common kinds of documentation. Documenting a quotation: Ex. "The separation from the personal mother is a particularly intense process for a daughter because she has to separate from the one who is the same as herself" (Murdock 17). She may feel abandoned and angry. Note: The author of The Heroine's Journey is listed under Works Cited by the author's name, reversed--Murdock, Maureen. Quoted material is found on page 17 of that book. Parenthetical documentation is after the quotation mark and before the period. Documenting a paraphrase: Ex. In fairy tales a woman who holds the princess captive or who abandons her often needs to be killed (18). Note: The second paraphrase is also from Murdock's book The Heroine's Journey. It is not, however, necessary to repeat the author's name if no other documentation interrupts the two. If the works cited page lists more than one work by the same author, include within the parentheses an abbreviated form of the appropriate title. You may, of course, include the title in your sentence, making it unnecessary to add an abbreviated title in the citation. > Prepare a Works Cited Page Back to Top There are a variety of titles for the page that lists primary and secondary sources (Gibaldi 106-107). A Works Cited page lists those works you have cited within the body of your paper. The reader need only refer to it for the necessary information required for further independent research. Bibliography means literally a description of books. Because your research may involve the use of periodicals, films, art works, photographs, etc. "Works Cited" is a more precise descriptive term than bibliography. An Annotated Bibliography or Annotated Works Cited page offers brief critiques and descriptions of the works listed. A Works Consulted page lists those works you have used but not cited. Avoid using this format. As with other elements of a research paper there are specific guidelines for the placement and the appearance of the Works Cited page. The following guidelines comply with MLA style: The Work Cited page is placed at the end of your paper and numbered consecutively with the body of your paper. Center the title and place it one inch from the top of your page. Do not quote or underline the title. Double space the entire page, both within and between entries. The entries are arranged alphabetically by the author's last name or by the title of the article or book being cited. If the title begins with an article (a, an, the) alphabetize by the next word. If you cite two or more works by the same author, list the titles in alphabetical order. Begin every entry after the first with three hyphens followed by a period. All entries begin at the left margin but subsequent lines are indented five spaces. Be sure that each entry cited on the Works Cited page corresponds to a specific citation within your paper. Refer to the the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (104- 182) for detailed descriptions of Work Cited entries. Citing sources from online databases is a relatively new phenomenon. Make sure to ask your professor about citing these sources and which style to use. V. Draft, Revise, Rewrite, Rethink Back to Top "There are days when the result is so bad that no fewer than five revisions are required. In contrast, when I'm greatly inspired, only four revisions are needed." --John Kenneth Galbraith Try freewriting your first draft. Freewriting is a discovery process during which the writer freely explores a topic. Let your creative juices flow. In Writing without Teachers , Peter Elbow asserts that "[a]lmost everybody interposes a massive and complicated series of editings between the time words start to be born into consciousness and when they finally come off the end of the pencil or typewriter [or word processor] onto the page" (5). Do not let your internal judge interfere with this first draft. Creating and revising are two very different functions. Don't confuse them! If you stop to check spelling, punctuation, or grammar, you disrupt the flow of creative energy. Create; then fix it later. When material you have researched comes easily to mind, include it. Add a quick citation, one you can come back to later to check for form, and get on with your discovery. In subsequent drafts, focus on creating an essay that flows smoothly, supports fully, and speaks clearly and interestingly. Add style to substance. Create a smooth flow of words, ideas and paragraphs. Rearrange paragraphs for a logical progression of information. Transition is essential if you want your reader to follow you smoothly from introduction to conclusion. Transitional words and phrases stitch your ideas together; they provide coherence within the essay. External transition: Words and phrases that are added to a sentence as overt signs of transition are obvious and effective, but should not be overused, as they may draw attention to themselves and away from ideas. Examples of external transition are "however," "then," "next," "therefore." "first," "moreover," and "on the other hand." Internal transition is more subtle. Key words in the introduction become golden threads when they appear in the paper's body and conclusion. When the writer hears a key word repeated too often, however, she/he replaces it with a synonym or a pronoun. Below are examples of internal transition. Transitional sentences create a logical flow from paragraph to paragraph. Iclude individual words, phrases, or clauses that refer to previous ideas and that point ahead to new ones. They are usually placed at the end or at the beginning of a paragraph. A transitional paragraph conducts your reader from one part of the paper to another. It may be only a few sentences long. Each paragraph of the body of the paper should contain adequate support for its one governing idea. Speak/write clearly, in your own voice. Tone: The paper's tone, whether formal, ironic, or humorous, should be appropriate for the audience and the subject. Voice: Keep you language honest. Your paper should sound like you. Understand, paraphrase, absorb, and express in your own words the information you have researched. Avoid phony language. Sentence formation: When you polish your sentences, read them aloud for word choice and word placement. Be concise. Strunk and White in The Elements of Style advise the writer to "omit needless words" (23). First, however, you must recognize them. Keep yourself and your reader interested. In fact, Strunk's 1918 writing advice is still well worth pondering. First, deliver on your promises. Be sure the body of your paper fulfills the promise of the introduction. Avoid the obvious. Offer new insights. Reveal the unexpected. Have you crafted your conclusion as carefully as you have your introduction? Conclusions are not merely the repetition of your thesis. The conclusion of a research paper is a synthesis of the information presented in the body. Your research has led you to conclusions and opinions that have helped you understand your thesis more deeply and more clearly. Lift your reader to the full level of understanding that you have achieved. Revision means "to look again." Find a peer reader to read your paper with you present. Or, visit your college or university's writing lab. Guide your reader's responses by asking specific questions. Are you unsure of the logical order of your paragraphs? Do you want to know whether you have supported all opinions adequately? Are you concerned about punctuation or grammar? Ask that these issues be addressed. You are in charge. Here are some techniques that may prove helpful when you are revising alone or with a reader. When you edit for spelling errors read the sentences backwards. This procedure will help you look closely at individual words. Always read your paper aloud. Hearing your own words puts them in a new light. Listen to the flow of ideas and of language. Decide whether or not the voice sounds honest and the tone is appropriate to the purpose of the paper and to your audience. Listen for awkward or lumpy wording. Find the one right word, Eliminate needless words. Combine sentences. Kill the passive voice. Eliminate was/were/is/are constructions. They're lame and anti-historical. Be ruthless. If an idea doesn't serve your thesis, banish it, even if it's one of your favorite bits of prose. In the margins, write the major topic of each paragraph. By outlining after you have written the paper, you are once again evaluating your paper's organization. OK, you've got the process down. Now execute! And enjoy! It's not everyday that you get to make history. VI. For Further Reading: Works Cited Back to Top Barnet, Sylvan, and Hugo Bedau. Critical Thinking, Reading, and Writing: A Brief Guide to Argument. Boston: Bedford, 1993. Brent, Doug. Reading as Rhetorical Invention: Knowledge,Persuasion and the Teaching of Research-Based Writing. Urbana: NCTE, 1992. Elbow, Peter. Writing without Teachers. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. Gibladi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 4th ed. New York: Modern Language Association, 1995. Horvitz, Deborah. "Nameless Ghosts: Possession and Dispossession in Beloved." Studies in American Fiction , Vol. 17, No. 2, Autum, 1989, pp. 157-167. Republished in the Literature Research Center. Gale Group. (1 January 1999). Klauser, Henriette Anne. Writing on Both Sides of the Brain: Breakthrough Techniques for People Who Write. Philadelphia: Harper, 1986. Rico, Gabriele Lusser. Writing the Natural Way: Using Right Brain Techniques to Release Your Expressive Powers. Los Angeles: Houghton, 1983. Sorenson, Sharon. The Research Paper: A Contemporary Approach. New York: AMSCO, 1994. Strunk, William, Jr., and E. B. White. The Elements of Style. 3rd ed. New York: MacMillan, 1979. Back to Top This guide adapted from materials published by Thomson Gale, publishers. For free resources, including a generic guide to writing term papers, see the Gale.com website , which also includes product information for schools.

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Sources of Historical Study, Primary, Secondary and Tertiary, Written and Oral, Evaluation of Sources

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The word History originated from Greek word ἱστορία, historia, meaning "inquiry, knowledge acquired by investigation"1. It is the study of the past, particularly how it relates to humans. It is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of information about these events.2 In a broader sense, “history is a systematic account of the origin and development of the humankind, a record of the unique events and movements in its life, it is an attempt to recapture however imperfectly, that which is, in a sense, lost forever.3 Any leftover of the past, which adds to our knowledge of that past, can be considered as its source. Hence History definitely has some sources.

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Teaching controversial and sensitive topics in history is always a challenge and Euroclio has devoted several seminars, projects and conferences on how best to teach these subjects at school. The objective of this booklet was to tackle the topic of St. Paul’s Shipwreck in Malta which is controversial on various levels in Maltese history. St. Paul’s shipwreck is mentioned in the bible and Malta a country where the Catholic religion is very strong, has always held this saint in high estime and there has been devotion and feasts dedicated to him since the Order of St John’s time in the 16th century. However, there has been some controversy raised by historians who have questioned whether he did come at all! These argue that apart from the reference in the bible there are no other historical sources which mention this event. This book tries to teach the topic by introducing the history method and how history works versus how mythology is enhanced. This is a sensitive issue because St. Paul is reverred as the one who brought the faith to the islands and the Maltese converted to christianity because of this provincial shipwreck. The popular belief is that from the shipwreck in 60 A.C.E. up to the present day there was a continuity of the Christian faith on the islands. This booklet also explores the validity of this claim of continuity by inviting pupils to look at the available sources and to make their own conclusions and interpretations based on the reliability of these sources. Irrespective of the theme, this booklet is interesting to all history teachers and history learners in any country because understanding the scientific way of how history works is useful in all contexts. While it also offers ideas and ways of using sources in such a way as not to impose judgements in history but to investigate sources and back any historical claims according to the evidence available.

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History: Primary vs. Secondary Sources

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Definitions (from Pennington School)

A primary source is an original material created during the time under study. Primary sources can be original documents, creative works, published materials of the times, institutional and government documents or relics and artifacts

Secondary sources put primary sources in context. They comment, summarize, interpret or analyze information found in primary sources. Secondary sources are usually written by individuals who did not experience firsthand the events about which they are writing.

Examples (from Penington School)

Selected sources.

  • Primary, Secondary or Tertiary Sources Tertiary sources: good for an overview; can help narrow a topic Secondary sources: sources created after the time of the event and not contemporaneous with the lifetime of the person Primary sources: original objects or documents created near the time being studied.

Analyzing Primary Sources

  • (3-D Pyramid) Five Steps to Analyze Primary Sources

Determining Primary vs. Secondary Sources (from Fresno State Univ.)

Primary vs. Secondary Sources: A Questionnaire

Answer the questions below about your source. If you answer, “yes” to any of the following questions, there is a good chance the source is PRIMARY.

Did the author personally witness or experience the subject in question? Does the author know about this subject because of personal experience rather than having just read about it? Is this source a diary, letter, memoir, autobiography, oral history, or interview of a person with first hand experience of the subject? Is this source an official document or record published at the time of the event by the government, courts, or another organization? Is this source a newspaper or magazine article written at the time of the event? Is this a creative work such as a novel, poem, art or music piece created by a firsthand witness of the subject in question? Is this an excerpt from a primary source, such as the constitution or a letter written by a Civil War soldier that has been imbedded in a secondary source, such as a textbook?Remember, secondary sources may include reprints of primary sources. Is this an artifact or relic such as jewelry, pottery, clothing, music, art, architecture, dance or weaponry that was used by witnesses of the subject in question? Is this a compilation of raw scientific data or statistics, such as census statistics published by the U.S. Census Bureau, that is being published without commentary or interpretation?

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secondary sources history research paper

What Are Primary Sources?

Primary sources are original materials used by historians to reconstruct a certain event in the past or moment in history. They are original documents, physical objects, relics, or artifacts created during the time under study by witnesses who lived through the event.  These sources were either produced at the time of the event, or (as in the case of memoirs and autobiographies) published at a later date.

The following are only a few examples of primary sources and are by no means exhaustive:

1.  Original documents such as letters, diaries, manuscripts, official documents, maps, pictures, and original film footage.  Examples:  the original Constitution of the United States, an original treaty between two states, diaries of travellers who document their journeys and experiences on the road, maps of cities or first-hand descriptions of battles.

2.  Relics and artifacts such as arrowheads, pottery shards, remains of buildings, clothing, and statues.

3.  Literature, poetry, drama, music, drawings, and other kinds of art; such as Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, cave paintings, poetry written by courtiers or bards.

Primary sources should be read critically and should not be taken as the literal truth.  When analyzing a primary document, one should take into account who the author was, why he or she was writing the document, and who (if anyone) was its target audience.  Did the author have any biases that influenced the way the document was written?  How reliable is the author?  Start by reading for content, then ask yourself the above questions -- how do they affect your understanding of the document?

It is essential to place the document into historical context and not judge its content by today's standards, always keeping in mind differences between the time it was written and the present.

What Are Secondary Sources?

A secondary source is a contemporary document, book, or article that analyzes, evaluates, and synthesizes information from primary sources.  Most secondary sources refer back to or have quotes and pictures from the primary source(s), but are written after the event in question.  Secondary sources are commentaries on and discussions of primary sources.  When using secondary sources, it is important to strive to be objective, even though this may not always be completely possible.  A few examples of secondary sources include books, articles, histories, encyclopedias, dictionaries, bibliographies, textbooks, and (most) websites.

When writing a history research paper, primary sources are used in conjunction with secondary sources.  It is important to evaluate the importance and relevance of the primary document to the assignment.  It is also very important to assess the document critically and evaluate its authenticity, authorship, language, and reliability.  Who was the author?  What were his or her motives for writing the document?  How reliable do you think he/she is?  What kind of language is the author using?  Who is her/her target audience?  How relevant is this document to your topic?  Once you have answered these questions to your satisfaction, you can begin constructing your argument.

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Where to find Secondary Sources

         " Secondary sources are commentaries and writings on the past from a later date " -   Lipartito, Kenneth. "Historical Sources and Data." Organizations in Time: History, Theory, Methods  (2014): 284-304.            

         

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In the social sciences, a secondary source is usually a scholar book, journal article, or digital or print document that was created by someone who did not directly experience or participate in the events or conditions under investigation. Secondary sources are not evidence per se, but rather, provide an interpretation, analysis, or commentary derived from the content of primary source materials and/or other secondary sources.

Value of Secondary Sources

To do research, you must cite research. Primary sources do not represent research per se, but only the artifacts from which most research is derived. Therefore, the majority of sources in a literature review are secondary sources that present research findings, analysis, and the evaluation of other researcher's works.

Reviewing secondary source material can be of valu e in improving your overall research paper because secondary sources facilitate the communication of what is known about a topic. This literature also helps you understand the level of uncertainty about what is currently known and what additional information is needed from further research. It is important to note, however, that secondary sources are not the subject of your analysis. Instead, they represent various opinions, interpretations, and arguments about the research problem you are investigating--opinions, interpretations, and arguments with which you may either agree or disagree with as part of your own analysis of the literature.

Examples of secondary sources you could review as part of your overall study include:     * Bibliographies [also considered tertiary]     * Biographical works     * Books, other than fiction and autobiography     * Commentaries, criticisms     * Dictionaries, Encyclopedias [also considered tertiary]     * Histories     * Journal articles [depending on the discipline, they can be primary]     * Magazine and newspaper articles [this distinction varies by discipline]     * Textbooks [also considered tertiary]     * Web site [also considered primary]

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Primary and Secondary Sources in History

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The concept of ‘primary’ and ‘secondary’ sources is key to studying and writing history. A ‘source’ is anything that provides information, from a manuscript where words tell you things to clothes that have survived centuries and provide details on fashion and chemistry. As you can imagine, you can't write history without sources as you would be making this up (which is good in historical fiction, but rather problematic when it comes to serious history.) Sources are usually divided into two categories, primary and secondary. These definitions would be different for the sciences and the below apply to the humanities. It's worth learning them, they are vital if you're taking exams.

Primary Sources

A ‘ Primary Source ’ is a document that was written or an object which was created, in the time period in which you are working. A ‘first hand’ item. A diary can be a primary source if the author experienced the events they recall, while a charter can be a primary source of the act it was created for. Photographs, while beset with problems, can be primary sources. The key thing is they offer a direct insight into what happened because they were created at the time and are fresh and closely related.

Primary sources can include paintings, manuscripts, chancellery rolls, coins, letters and more.

Secondary Sources

A ‘ Secondary Source ’ can be defined in two ways: it is anything about a historical event which was created using primary sources, and/or which was one or more stages removed from the time period and the event. A ‘second hand’ item. For instance, school textbooks tell you about a time period, but they are all secondary sources as they were written later, usually by people who weren’t there, and discuss the primary sources they used when being created. Secondary sources frequently quote or reproduce primary sources, such as a book using a photograph. The key point is that the people who made these sources are relying on other testimony rather than their own.

Secondary sources can include history books, articles, websites like this one (other websites might be a primary source to ‘contemporary history’.) Not everything ‘old’ is a primary historical source: plenty of medieval or ancient works are secondary sources based on now lost primary sources, despite being of great age.

Tertiary Sources

Sometimes you will see a third class: the tertiary source. These are items like dictionaries and encyclopedias: history is written using both primary and secondary sources and shrunk down to the basic points. We've written for encyclopedias, and tertiary is not a criticism.

Reliability

One of the primary tools of the historian is the ability to study a range of sources and assess which is reliable , which suffers from bias, or most commonly which suffers from the least bias and can be best used to reconstruct the past. Most history written for school qualifications uses secondary sources because they are effective teaching tools, with primary sources introduced and, at a higher level, as the dominant source. However, you can’t generalize primary and secondary sources as reliable and unreliable.

There is every chance a primary source can suffer from bias, even photographs, which are not safe and must be studied just as much. Equally, a secondary source can be produced by a skilled author and provide the best of our knowledge. It’s important to know what you need to use. As a general rule the more advanced your level of study the more you'll be reading primary sources and making conclusions and deductions based on your insight and empathy, rather than using secondary works. But if you want to learn about a period quickly and efficiently, selecting a good secondary source is actually best.

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  • What is Secondary Research? | Definition, Types, & Examples

What is Secondary Research? | Definition, Types, & Examples

Published on January 20, 2023 by Tegan George . Revised on January 12, 2024.

Secondary research is a research method that uses data that was collected by someone else. In other words, whenever you conduct research using data that already exists, you are conducting secondary research. On the other hand, any type of research that you undertake yourself is called primary research .

Secondary research can be qualitative or quantitative in nature. It often uses data gathered from published peer-reviewed papers, meta-analyses, or government or private sector databases and datasets.

Table of contents

When to use secondary research, types of secondary research, examples of secondary research, advantages and disadvantages of secondary research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions.

Secondary research is a very common research method, used in lieu of collecting your own primary data. It is often used in research designs or as a way to start your research process if you plan to conduct primary research later on.

Since it is often inexpensive or free to access, secondary research is a low-stakes way to determine if further primary research is needed, as gaps in secondary research are a strong indication that primary research is necessary. For this reason, while secondary research can theoretically be exploratory or explanatory in nature, it is usually explanatory: aiming to explain the causes and consequences of a well-defined problem.

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Secondary research can take many forms, but the most common types are:

Statistical analysis

Literature reviews, case studies, content analysis.

There is ample data available online from a variety of sources, often in the form of datasets. These datasets are often open-source or downloadable at a low cost, and are ideal for conducting statistical analyses such as hypothesis testing or regression analysis .

Credible sources for existing data include:

  • The government
  • Government agencies
  • Non-governmental organizations
  • Educational institutions
  • Businesses or consultancies
  • Libraries or archives
  • Newspapers, academic journals, or magazines

A literature review is a survey of preexisting scholarly sources on your topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant themes, debates, and gaps in the research you analyze. You can later apply these to your own work, or use them as a jumping-off point to conduct primary research of your own.

Structured much like a regular academic paper (with a clear introduction, body, and conclusion), a literature review is a great way to evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject. It is usually qualitative in nature and can focus on  a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. A case study is a great way to utilize existing research to gain concrete, contextual, and in-depth knowledge about your real-world subject.

You can choose to focus on just one complex case, exploring a single subject in great detail, or examine multiple cases if you’d prefer to compare different aspects of your topic. Preexisting interviews , observational studies , or other sources of primary data make for great case studies.

Content analysis is a research method that studies patterns in recorded communication by utilizing existing texts. It can be either quantitative or qualitative in nature, depending on whether you choose to analyze countable or measurable patterns, or more interpretive ones. Content analysis is popular in communication studies, but it is also widely used in historical analysis, anthropology, and psychology to make more semantic qualitative inferences.

Primary Research and Secondary Research

Secondary research is a broad research approach that can be pursued any way you’d like. Here are a few examples of different ways you can use secondary research to explore your research topic .

Secondary research is a very common research approach, but has distinct advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages of secondary research

Advantages include:

  • Secondary data is very easy to source and readily available .
  • It is also often free or accessible through your educational institution’s library or network, making it much cheaper to conduct than primary research .
  • As you are relying on research that already exists, conducting secondary research is much less time consuming than primary research. Since your timeline is so much shorter, your research can be ready to publish sooner.
  • Using data from others allows you to show reproducibility and replicability , bolstering prior research and situating your own work within your field.

Disadvantages of secondary research

Disadvantages include:

  • Ease of access does not signify credibility . It’s important to be aware that secondary research is not always reliable , and can often be out of date. It’s critical to analyze any data you’re thinking of using prior to getting started, using a method like the CRAAP test .
  • Secondary research often relies on primary research already conducted. If this original research is biased in any way, those research biases could creep into the secondary results.

Many researchers using the same secondary research to form similar conclusions can also take away from the uniqueness and reliability of your research. Many datasets become “kitchen-sink” models, where too many variables are added in an attempt to draw increasingly niche conclusions from overused data . Data cleansing may be necessary to test the quality of the research.

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If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

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A systematic review is secondary research because it uses existing research. You don’t collect new data yourself.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

  • If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
  • If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
  • If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

Sources in this article

We strongly encourage students to use sources in their work. You can cite our article (APA Style) or take a deep dive into the articles below.

George, T. (2024, January 12). What is Secondary Research? | Definition, Types, & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved February 15, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/secondary-research/
Largan, C., & Morris, T. M. (2019). Qualitative Secondary Research: A Step-By-Step Guide (1st ed.). SAGE Publications Ltd.
Peloquin, D., DiMaio, M., Bierer, B., & Barnes, M. (2020). Disruptive and avoidable: GDPR challenges to secondary research uses of data. European Journal of Human Genetics , 28 (6), 697–705. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41431-020-0596-x

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Welcome to the research guide for American History I - Wils! This guide is designed to assist you in locating source material for your research project.

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Primary vs. Secondary vs. Tertiary Sources

The video below helps to explain the difference between primary, secondary, and tertiary sources.

  • Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary Sources Video Transcript (word document)

Imagine Easy Solutions. (2014, June 2). Understanding Primary & Secondary Sources. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/pmno-Yfetd8

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HIST388: American Indian History

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How technology is reinventing education

Stanford Graduate School of Education Dean Dan Schwartz and other education scholars weigh in on what's next for some of the technology trends taking center stage in the classroom.

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New advances in technology are upending education, from the recent debut of new artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots like ChatGPT to the growing accessibility of virtual-reality tools that expand the boundaries of the classroom. For educators, at the heart of it all is the hope that every learner gets an equal chance to develop the skills they need to succeed. But that promise is not without its pitfalls.

“Technology is a game-changer for education – it offers the prospect of universal access to high-quality learning experiences, and it creates fundamentally new ways of teaching,” said Dan Schwartz, dean of Stanford Graduate School of Education (GSE), who is also a professor of educational technology at the GSE and faculty director of the Stanford Accelerator for Learning . “But there are a lot of ways we teach that aren’t great, and a big fear with AI in particular is that we just get more efficient at teaching badly. This is a moment to pay attention, to do things differently.”

For K-12 schools, this year also marks the end of the Elementary and Secondary School Emergency Relief (ESSER) funding program, which has provided pandemic recovery funds that many districts used to invest in educational software and systems. With these funds running out in September 2024, schools are trying to determine their best use of technology as they face the prospect of diminishing resources.

Here, Schwartz and other Stanford education scholars weigh in on some of the technology trends taking center stage in the classroom this year.

AI in the classroom

In 2023, the big story in technology and education was generative AI, following the introduction of ChatGPT and other chatbots that produce text seemingly written by a human in response to a question or prompt. Educators immediately worried that students would use the chatbot to cheat by trying to pass its writing off as their own. As schools move to adopt policies around students’ use of the tool, many are also beginning to explore potential opportunities – for example, to generate reading assignments or coach students during the writing process.

AI can also help automate tasks like grading and lesson planning, freeing teachers to do the human work that drew them into the profession in the first place, said Victor Lee, an associate professor at the GSE and faculty lead for the AI + Education initiative at the Stanford Accelerator for Learning. “I’m heartened to see some movement toward creating AI tools that make teachers’ lives better – not to replace them, but to give them the time to do the work that only teachers are able to do,” he said. “I hope to see more on that front.”

He also emphasized the need to teach students now to begin questioning and critiquing the development and use of AI. “AI is not going away,” said Lee, who is also director of CRAFT (Classroom-Ready Resources about AI for Teaching), which provides free resources to help teach AI literacy to high school students across subject areas. “We need to teach students how to understand and think critically about this technology.”

Immersive environments

The use of immersive technologies like augmented reality, virtual reality, and mixed reality is also expected to surge in the classroom, especially as new high-profile devices integrating these realities hit the marketplace in 2024.

The educational possibilities now go beyond putting on a headset and experiencing life in a distant location. With new technologies, students can create their own local interactive 360-degree scenarios, using just a cell phone or inexpensive camera and simple online tools.

“This is an area that’s really going to explode over the next couple of years,” said Kristen Pilner Blair, director of research for the Digital Learning initiative at the Stanford Accelerator for Learning, which runs a program exploring the use of virtual field trips to promote learning. “Students can learn about the effects of climate change, say, by virtually experiencing the impact on a particular environment. But they can also become creators, documenting and sharing immersive media that shows the effects where they live.”

Integrating AI into virtual simulations could also soon take the experience to another level, Schwartz said. “If your VR experience brings me to a redwood tree, you could have a window pop up that allows me to ask questions about the tree, and AI can deliver the answers.”

Gamification

Another trend expected to intensify this year is the gamification of learning activities, often featuring dynamic videos with interactive elements to engage and hold students’ attention.

“Gamification is a good motivator, because one key aspect is reward, which is very powerful,” said Schwartz. The downside? Rewards are specific to the activity at hand, which may not extend to learning more generally. “If I get rewarded for doing math in a space-age video game, it doesn’t mean I’m going to be motivated to do math anywhere else.”

Gamification sometimes tries to make “chocolate-covered broccoli,” Schwartz said, by adding art and rewards to make speeded response tasks involving single-answer, factual questions more fun. He hopes to see more creative play patterns that give students points for rethinking an approach or adapting their strategy, rather than only rewarding them for quickly producing a correct response.

Data-gathering and analysis

The growing use of technology in schools is producing massive amounts of data on students’ activities in the classroom and online. “We’re now able to capture moment-to-moment data, every keystroke a kid makes,” said Schwartz – data that can reveal areas of struggle and different learning opportunities, from solving a math problem to approaching a writing assignment.

But outside of research settings, he said, that type of granular data – now owned by tech companies – is more likely used to refine the design of the software than to provide teachers with actionable information.

The promise of personalized learning is being able to generate content aligned with students’ interests and skill levels, and making lessons more accessible for multilingual learners and students with disabilities. Realizing that promise requires that educators can make sense of the data that’s being collected, said Schwartz – and while advances in AI are making it easier to identify patterns and findings, the data also needs to be in a system and form educators can access and analyze for decision-making. Developing a usable infrastructure for that data, Schwartz said, is an important next step.

With the accumulation of student data comes privacy concerns: How is the data being collected? Are there regulations or guidelines around its use in decision-making? What steps are being taken to prevent unauthorized access? In 2023 K-12 schools experienced a rise in cyberattacks, underscoring the need to implement strong systems to safeguard student data.

Technology is “requiring people to check their assumptions about education,” said Schwartz, noting that AI in particular is very efficient at replicating biases and automating the way things have been done in the past, including poor models of instruction. “But it’s also opening up new possibilities for students producing material, and for being able to identify children who are not average so we can customize toward them. It’s an opportunity to think of entirely new ways of teaching – this is the path I hope to see.”

IMAGES

  1. History Research Papers

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  2. 43+ Research Paper Examples

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  3. How to Write a Research Paper: Full Guide with Examples

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  4. 10+ Historical Research Examples in PDF

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  6. A Guide on How to Find Sources For a Research Paper

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VIDEO

  1. Historical Sources

  2. #GKPEDIA : UPSC Prelims and Mains : Ancient History Previous Year Questions and Answers

  3. How to Find Secondary Sources

  4. Selection and Organization of Relevant Historical Evidence and Information

  5. Sources Of History: A Common Topic for all standards

  6. QUESTION PAPER ll Issues in 20th century world history-ll 09/06/ 2022 ll Semester-6th ll SOL/ REG

COMMENTS

  1. What is a Secondary Source?

    For a historical research project, secondary sources are generally scholarly books and articles. A secondary source interprets and analyzes primary sources. These sources are one or more steps removed from the event. Secondary sources may contain pictures, quotes or graphics of primary sources.

  2. Primary & Secondary Sources

    A secondary source is a contemporary document, book, or article that analyzes, evaluates, and synthesizes information from primary sources. Most secondary sources refer back to or have quotes and pictures from the primary source (s), but are written after the event in question.

  3. PDF A Brief Guide to Writing the History Paper

    most common secondary sources. Note that many sources can serve as either primary or secondary sources, depending on your topic and particular frame of reference. Edward Gibbon's History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, for instance, can represent a second-ary source (if your topic is imperial Rome in the first millen-

  4. The Role of Secondary Sources

    Secondary sources are works that provide summaries, analysis, commentary, or criticism on the primary source.* As upper-level history students, you will have learned about, searched for, and used secondary sources in previous research assignments.

  5. Research Help for History Students: Secondary Sources

    While the bulk of your research will often come from primary sources, you will also need secondary sources to support your arguments and claims in your paper.. Secondary sources use primary sources to analyze and make arguments about the past. They are generally written by a scholar who did not experience the event they are describing.These sources can take many forms depending on the ...

  6. Secondary Sources

    Secondary Sources - General History Guide - LibGuides at Tufts University Research Guides@Tufts Databases and Indexes of Scholarly Literature Academic Search Premier Multi-disciplinary | Index and some full text | Scholarly literature AfricaBib.org African studies | Index | Journal articles America: History & Life

  7. PDF Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources in History

    Examples of primary sources include: personal journals/diaries/memoirs, letters, court proceedings, legislative debates, newspaper and magazine articles, movies, music, art, etc. Secondary Sources (i.e., historiography) - Books and articles produced by historians. Your final paper is a secondary source that you, working as an historian, produce.

  8. Secondary Sources

    Secondary sources include scholarly books, articles, and essays (both analyses by contemporary scholars as well as older analyses), surveys, criticism, comparative studies, reference sources, and works on theory and methodology; this is also termed the secondary literature .

  9. Research Guides: American History: Find Secondary Sources (scholarly

    Find primary and secondary sources for American History research. Resources and tips for finding scholarly and peer-reviewed books and journal articles for your research.

  10. Primary vs. Secondary Sources

    Revised on May 31, 2023. When you do research, you have to gather information and evidence from a variety of sources. Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. Primary research gives you direct access to the subject of your research.

  11. LibGuides: History Department: Primary and Secondary Sources

    Generally, secondary sources are used for three main reasons: to keep up with current research, to find and understand alternative points of view, and/or to find models for your own research and analysis. *text adapted from Kate Turabian's, A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, 7th edition

  12. LibGuides: *History Research Guide*: Primary/Secondary Sources

    Your research question determines whether the source is primary or secondary for your research. The same document could be a primary source for one paper and a secondary source for another paper. Example: 1975 biography about Abraham Lincoln would probably be a: Secondary source if you are studying Lincoln's life.

  13. Types of Sources and Where to Find Them: Secondary Sources

    surveys of broad historical periods, works that focus on specific events or topics, literary and cultural criticism, and works on theory and methodology. Secondary sources can be found in books, journals, or Internet resources.

  14. A Step by Step Guide to Doing Historical Research

    This step-by-step guide progresses from an introduction to historical resources to information about how to identify a topic, craft a thesis and develop a research paper. Table of contents: The Range and Richness of Historical Sources. Secondary Sources. Primary Sources.

  15. (PDF) Sources of Historical Study, Primary, Secondary and Tertiary

    Understanding the ways historians construct their arguments is essential to writing good history papers. Secondary sources, including our own research paper, are constructed for various reasons, including the following: No one has begun to analyze a particular issue, and so the author is developing a first interpretation of it.

  16. Research Guides: History: Primary vs. Secondary Sources

    A primary source is an original material created during the time under study. Primary sources can be original documents, creative works, published materials of the times, institutional and government documents or relics and artifacts. Secondary sources put primary sources in context. They comment, summarize, interpret or analyze information ...

  17. Primary and Secondary Sources

    A secondary source is a contemporary document, book, or article that analyzes, evaluates, and synthesizes information from primary sources. ... When writing a history research paper, primary sources are used in conjunction with secondary sources. It is important to evaluate the importance and relevance of the primary document to the assignment.

  18. Research Guides: Secondary Historical Sources: Best Options

    OneSearch. Locate secondary sources in books and history journals: 1. search for your topic using Advanced Search. 2. limit your results to Publication Date 1985 - present. 3. limit your results to either Books or Book Chapters *. 4. or limit your results to Peer-reviewed Journals **. * Make sure your books are scholarly (include footnotes)

  19. Secondary Sources

    Definition In the social sciences, a secondary source is usually a scholar book, journal article, or digital or print document that was created by someone who did not directly experience or participate in the events or conditions under investigation.

  20. Primary and Secondary Sources in History

    Secondary sources can include history books, articles, websites like this one (other websites might be a primary source to 'contemporary history'.) Not everything 'old' is a primary historical source: plenty of medieval or ancient works are secondary sources based on now lost primary sources, despite being of great age. Tertiary Sources

  21. What is Secondary Research?

    Published on January 20, 2023 by Tegan George . Revised on January 12, 2024. Secondary research is a research method that uses data that was collected by someone else. In other words, whenever you conduct research using data that already exists, you are conducting secondary research.

  22. JSTOR Home

    Harness the power of visual materials—explore more than 3 million images now on JSTOR. Enhance your scholarly research with underground newspapers, magazines, and journals. Explore collections in the arts, sciences, and literature from the world's leading museums, archives, and scholars. JSTOR is a digital library of academic journals ...

  23. Research Guides: American History I

    Welcome to the research guide for American History I - Wils! This guide is designed to assist you in locating source material for your research project. Here you will find information on finding books, articles, and websites for the assignment. ... secondary, and tertiary sources. Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary Sources Video Transcript (word ...

  24. Secondary Sources

    Keep in mind, for a more accurate search, conduct your research through the Library's website. What if UD doesn't have a book or an article? If UD does not have an item, you can request material (i.e. a chapter, an entire monograph, an article, microfilm reels) from InterLibrary Loan by clicking the "Get It" button in a database or "Request ...

  25. How technology is reinventing K-12 education

    For K-12 schools, this year also marks the end of the Elementary and Secondary School Emergency Relief (ESSER) funding program, which has provided pandemic recovery funds that many districts used ...