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HOW TO WRITE AND PUBLISH A SCIENTIFIC PAPER

7-10h of study, 10h work on project

Prerequisites

This course is designed for students who have previous experience with academic research - you should be eager to adapt our writing and publishing advice to an existing personal project. If you just finished your graduate dissertation, just began your PhD

General & scientific knowledge

Course language

HOW TO WRITE AND PUBLISH A SCIENTIFIC PAPER

PRESENTATION: In this project-based course, you will outline a complete scientific paper, choose an appropriate journal to which you'll submit the finished paper for publication, and prepare a checklist that will allow you to independently judge whether your paper is ready to submit. How to write an article and publish it in Nature or Science? The MOOC in English "How to write a scientific paper", conceived by six PhD candidates from École Polytechnique, which opened on February 29th, 2016, on the American platform Coursera, deals with this exact issue. To help graduate and PhD students who want to see their work published, PhD candidates designed an online class focusing on the writing and the publication of a scientific paper. To do so, Mattias Mano, one of the PhD candidates, managed the pedagogical team constituted of Héloïse Berkowitz, Mathias Guérineau, Arnaud Jaoul, Haruki Sawamura and Alexandre Viard. Mathis Plapp, senior scientist at CNRS, supervised the scientific content. The MOOC is composed of four sections. The first one focuses on the context and the functioning of scientific journals. In the second part, the class provides advices on how to frame a research project. In the third section, the course describes the structure of an article and the use of concrete bibliographical tools such as Zotero. Finally, students will learn how to build a tool, the check list that they have to use before sending their article to a journal. The MOOC is taught in English, available on Coursera since February 29th, 2016. COURSE SYLLABUS Week 1: Understanding academia 1.0 Why creating such a MOOC? Who is it for? 1.1 Why is publishing important? 1.2 "KYC": Know Your Community 1.3 How journals work: the review process 1.4 Presentation of scientific journals 1.5 Ethical Guidelines Week 2: Before writing: delimiting your scientific paper 2.1 Paper definition "KYP', Know Your Paper 2.2 How to: the literature review 1/2: find a good literature review 2.3 How to: the literature review 2/2: construction of your own literature review 2.4 How to: the research design 2.5 How to: the gap 2. Additional class: Zotero Week 3: Writing the paper: things you need to know 3.1 The structure of an academic paper 3.2 On writing an academic paper, preliminary advice 3.3 How to: the bibliography 3.4 How to : the abstract 3. Additional content Week 4: After the writing: the check list 4.1 How to avoid being boring? 4.2 The main mistakes to look for: format 4. Two sides of a same coin 4.3 Constructing your checklist

Plapp Mathis

Plapp Mathis

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How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper (Project-Centered Course)

how to write and publish a scientific paper coursera answers

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About this course: What you will achieve: In this project-based course, you will outline a complete scientific paper, choose an appropriate journal to which you'll submit the finished paper for publication, and prepare a checklist that will allow you to independently judge whether your paper is ready to submit. What you'll need to get started: This course is designed for students who have previous experience with academic research - you should be eager to adapt our writing and publishing advice to an existing personal project. If you just finished your graduate dissertation, just began your PhD, or are at a different stage of your academic journey or career and just want to publish your…

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About this course: What you will achieve: In this project-based course, you will outline a complete scientific paper, choose an appropriate journal to which you'll submit the finished paper for publication, and prepare a checklist that will allow you to independently judge whether your paper is ready to submit. What you'll need to get started: This course is designed for students who have previous experience with academic research - you should be eager to adapt our writing and publishing advice to an existing personal project. If you just finished your graduate dissertation, just began your PhD, or are at a different stage of your academic journey or career and just want to publish your work, this course is for you. *About Project-Centered Courses: Project-Centered Courses are designed to help you complete a personally meaningful real-world project, with your instructor and a community of learners with similar goals providing guidance and suggestions along the way. By actively applying new concepts as you learn, you’ll master the course content more efficiently; you’ll also get a head start on using the skills you gain to make positive changes in your life and career. When you complete the course, you’ll have a finished project that you’ll be proud to use and share.

Taught by:   Mathis Plapp, Assistant Professor

Each course is like an interactive textbook, featuring pre-recorded videos, quizzes and projects.

Connect with thousands of other learners and debate ideas, discuss course material, and get help mastering concepts.

Earn official recognition for your work, and share your success with friends, colleagues, and employers.

  • Reading: MOOCKnowledge Survey
  • Video: Introduction by Mathis Plapp
  • Reading: Teaching team
  • Video: Let me walk you through the course
  • Discussion Prompt: Your thoughts
  • Video: French version of the class
  • Video: Why is publishing important?
  • Practice Quiz: Why is publishing important?
  • Reading: Breakthroughs!
  • Video: "KYC": Know Your Community
  • Practice Quiz: Know your community
  • Video: How journals work: the review process
  • Practice Quiz: How journals work: the review process
  • Reading: Additional contents
  • Video: Presentation of scientific journals
  • Discussion Prompt: Compatibility between paper submission and editorial board
  • Practice Quiz: Communication with the editorial board
  • Video: Ethical Guidelines
  • Reading: Examples of guidelines
  • Practice Quiz: Ethical Guidelines and intellectual property
  • Video: Paper definition "KYP", Know Your Paper
  • Discussion Prompt: Compatibility between paper and journal
  • Practice Quiz: So, what?
  • Video: How to: the literature review 1/2: find a good literature review
  • Discussion Prompt: Understanding how the literature review is structured
  • Video: How to: the literature review 2/2: construction of your own literature review
  • Reading: Books and tools
  • Practice Quiz: Think about it
  • Discussion Prompt: Finding Useful References: Difficulties & Strategies for Success.
  • Video: How to: the research design
  • Discussion Prompt: Comparing different research designs on the same subject
  • Video: How to: the gap
  • Video: Presentation of Zotero: aggregate references
  • Video: The structure of an academic paper
  • Discussion Prompt: Comparing different constructions of papers
  • Video: On writing an academic paper, preliminary tips
  • Reading: Important readings before writing a paper
  • Video: How to: the bibliography
  • Practice Quiz: Please, try by yourself
  • Video: The abstract
  • Discussion Prompt: Discussing abstracts
  • Reading: detailed information on how to write your article
  • Video: Zotero: online features
  • Video: How to avoid being boring?
  • Reading: Avoiding mistakes
  • Video: The main mistakes to look for: format
  • Reading: Format and Writing Readings
  • Video: 1. The researcher
  • Video: 2. The editor
  • Video: Constructing your checklist
  • Discussion Prompt: Several content worth taking a look at
  • Reading: Tips
  • Reading: Final survey

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Writing and publishing a scientific paper

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  • Published: 11 January 2022
  • Volume 8 , article number  8 , ( 2022 )

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This text is designed to give the reader a helping hand in writing a scientific paper. It provides generic advice on ways that a scientific paper can be improved. The focus is on the following ethical and non-technical issues: (1) when to start writing, and in what language; (2) how to choose a good title; (3) what should be included in the various sections (abstract, introduction, experimental, results, discussion, conclusions, and supporting information (supplementary material); (4) who should be considered as a co-author, and who should be acknowledged for help; (5) which journal should be chosen; and (6) how to respond to reviewers’ comments. Purely technical issues, such as grammar, artwork, reference styles, etc., are not considered.

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How to Prepare a Scientific Paper

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How to Write and Publish a Research Paper for a Peer-Reviewed Journal

Clara Busse & Ella August

how to write and publish a scientific paper coursera answers

The Point Is…to Publish?

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

“Work, finish, publish” (Michael Faraday) [ 1 ]. Footnote 1

Introduction

The task of writing a scientific paper usually befalls young researchers quite early in their bachelor, masters or PhD degree programs. In most cases, the candidates know very little about the publishing process, which involves a complex combination of historical traditions and modern innovations. Guidebooks are of course available, but these tend to focus on purely technical issues, and miss the interpersonal nuances that are so daunting for the beginner. In any case, the technical issues are normally not the main problem for computer-literate students, so I avoid them in this document. Instead I present my personal views on the overall process, and leave it to the reader to evaluate them.

Long experience has taught me that there are many ways of writing a successful paper, but nevertheless some general principles can be identified. In what follows, all my suggestions are informed by my experience as the editor-in-chief of two international journals, the Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry for 25 years, and ChemTexts—The Textbook Journal of Chemistry for 7 years. I have also been the editor of the series Monographs in Electrochemistry , as well as various reference books and textbooks.

Looking back at history, the communication of scientific results in specialist journals is a rather recent development: its origins date back to the second half of the seventeenth century. In 1665, the Journal des sçavans started in France, while the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society began in Great Britain. Before that time, it was common to publish new findings in books. However, the increasing pace of scientific developments, as well as the increasing number of people who were devoting their lives to science, required a more efficient and faster form of communication. For this to be achieved, journals proved to be very successful. The history of scientific journals cannot be traced here, but I recommend the book The Scientific Journal by Alex Csiszar [ 2 ].

Scientific communication requires a common language that is shared by the author and the reader. Michael D. Gordin has described in his book Scientific Babel [ 3 ] how, over the last few centuries, scientific communication has gradually shifted from Latin to English. The author also pays detailed attention to the French, German and Russian languages, which played important roles in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. These languages retain their importance for scientists, because they contain the foundational texts of many important branches of science.

When to start writing a manuscript

It is trivial to say that one should write a manuscript only when one has new results to communicate. But new results do not appear suddenly and without ambiguity. Rather, they tend to accumulate gradually over time, and require repeated contextualisation to be fully appreciated. This begs the question, at what point should one publish?

Answering this question is difficult. Students certainly need to discuss the matter with their supervisors, who have the necessary experience and far-sightedness. Beginners often wildly underrate or overrate their data. Realistically, however, all scientific publication is a compromise between “publishing too late” and “publishing too early”.

“Publishing too late” (or never) is a well-known fault of some overcautious individuals, who withhold their data from public scrutiny because they are not satisfied with its accuracy and completeness. Although this demonstrates their high ethical standards as regards their personal participation in the scientific process, it also reveals an indifference to the social value of their data and the financial costs to others of having to reproduce their results. In the final analysis, tax-payers’ money that is spent on unpublished work is wasted money, and this raises questions of probity. (In the case of industrial research, contractual confidentiality may also restrict publication, but that is a problem I cannot discuss here.)

“Publishing too early” is a fault of some reckless individuals who have scant regard for the integrity of the scientific process. The institutional pressure to publish papers and the competition for scarce funds are the main causes of this. Nowadays, pollution of the scientific literature by worthless, irreproducible or sloppy work is an increasing and serious problem. Here I can only plead with colleagues of all ages: please do not be tempted by the short-term advantages of overpublication. The benefits are illusory, and the damage is untold. With the advent of mass data storage, published papers are effectively immortal, and sooner or later bad work (and its creators) will be found out.

Of course, “publishing too early” is most tempting for the beginner, and the problem becomes critical when the supervisor is also overambitious. If the supervisor pressurizes the student to publish uncooked results, then the student has a big problem! Now, many universities have introduced ‘thesis committees’ consisting of the primary supervisor plus two or three additional members. These committees can provide valuable advice with respect to timeliness of publishing and they may also mitigate conflicts between the student and their main supervisor, if they happen to occur.

Personally, I have been an ombudsman at my university, and I am pleased to say that such conflicts can be resolved amicably by careful and trustful discussions between all parties. But I fear that global science has a problem with this issue.

The whole question of when to start writing cannot be answered by a simple prescription, and depends to a large extent on the personalities of the individuals concerned. My personal advice is to start writing as soon as the main results become discernible. Writing down the first tranche of clear and reliable results is a useful discipline which indicates what has been achieved and what experiments remain to be done. If you delay writing until you think that all the required experiments have been completed, then you will be sadly disappointed. You will discover that much has been omitted, and then you will have to start again with certain crucial experiments. It goes without saying that co-authors should be involved very early in the writing.

In what language should the paper be written?

What language to use is rather obvious. If you want to be understood worldwide, then you must publish in English. In 2021, there were around 1.35 billion people, scattered over many countries, who spoke English as a first or second language. If you are not a native English speaker, then I strongly recommend that you start to write in English. Do not write in your native language with the vague notion of translating it later into English. This is always bad policy, because you will certainly find it more difficult to translate your text into English than to compose it from scratch. Assuredly, this demands a reasonable command of English. But there are practical steps that you can take to help you along the way.

To achieve a sufficient command of English, you should read as many well-written(!) scientific papers in English as possible. For technical English, try to focus on papers written by native English speakers. However, do not limit yourself to scientific papers, but also read English stories and novels, or any other writings, that can expand your knowledge of English. You should also try to distinguish the different styles (scientific, colloquial, etc.) and avoid mixing them in your own writing.

At this point I suggest the book The Chemist’s English [ 4 ] written by Robert Schoenfeld, and his paper “Say it in English, please” [ 5 ]. Schoenfeld was editor-in-chief of the Australian Journal of Chemistry . One trick that I have found very effective for improving my written English is to translate the draft manuscript back into my native language (in my case German). For many years I did this for publications in Angewandte Chemie , a journal that is published both in English and German, and these back translations frequently revealed the weaknesses in my English.

Concerning written text, I have some further advice which is not specific to the English language: first of all, write clearly and understandably! The eminent physicist Carl Wagner (1901–1976) famously wrote “Any fool can think and write something complicated” (“Jeder Dumme kann etwas Kompliziertes denken und schreiben”) [ 6 ]. Always remember these wise words! Whenever you write a very complicated phrase, ask yourself, do you really understand what you have written? Very often, complicated constructions are the result of an insufficient understanding, or represent an attempt at “hedging” i.e. attempting to disguise the omission of certain facts which might otherwise conflict with the overall claims being made.

In the same book, Wagner also wrote “It is a very special art to speak understandably about subjects when they are not yet completely known”. With regard to clear and understandable language, I should also like to give a serious warning regarding the misuse of certain words and phrases that express uncertainty: “possibly”, “probably”, “may be an indication of”, “seems to be”, “cannot be excluded”, “it is reasonable to assume”, etc. It is possible that these constructions may be justified in certain circumstances, but more often than not they hide a lack of understanding, and trigger alarm bells in the minds of readers. Whenever you write these phrases, ask yourself, are they necessary, are they well-reasoned? I have seen manuscripts full of such vague phrases, and it was clear that they were more or less worthless!

For the language of a paper to be intelligible, it is also necessary that a well-defined terminology is used. The terms have to be internationally accepted (e.g. by IUPAC) and have to be used consistently. It is not good to operate with several synonyms, but one and the same should be used throughout.

The structure of a scientific paper

Usually, scientific papers are structured in the following subsections: (1) title, (2) name of authors and their affiliation(s), (3) keywords, (4) graphical abstract, (5) abstract, (6) introduction, (7) experimental part, (8) results and discussion, (9) conclusions, (10) acknowledgements, (11) references, (12) list of figure captions, (13) figures. Most journals offer publication of ‘supporting information’ (or ‘supplementary material’): these supplements are not part of the main paper, but usually constitute a depository for data, figures, tables, mathematical derivations, etc. which the reader may like to consult for a deeper understanding, which, however, are not vital for a general understanding of the paper. I always prefer to put as much as possible into the main paper, and restrict supplementary information to items which are really of less significance. Many journals provide templates, which you should use. In these templates, the order of items may differ from that given above. You should always adhere strictly to the guidelines of the journal. Some details relating to the subsections of a paper are described below.

The title is the entrance door to your paper. Reading the title, many people make the decision whether to enter the document or walk away. According to Thomson’s Web of Science , about 27% of natural science papers are uncited after 5 years, most likely because they are unread, or undiscovered by search engines. To attract interest, the title of a paper needs to be as short as possible, but as long as necessary. It should also contain some searchable terms for easy computer recognition. Certainly, the title also needs to indicate the very essence of the paper. Prior to the advent of computers, it was customary to use titles like “Studies in phosphorus chemistry. Part XII.”! What on earth does that tell you? Nothing about the specific contents, that’s for sure. Luckily, the time of such absurdities is over.

Phrasing the title of a scientific paper is hard work, and usually the final choice will emerge only after long consideration. It is my personal view that authors should think about the title at the very beginning of writing a manuscript. Since the title reveals the essence, a well-chosen title can set the tone for the entire manuscript. And it goes without saying that the title can still be modified many times as the manuscript mutates into its final form.

The keywords

Most journals request a list of keywords. These are important for the classification of the paper in information systems. Think about the terms that best characterise the content of your paper. However, try to avoid newly created terms or abbreviations. Although an overlap between title terms and keywords is unavoidable, the latter should provide additional information.

The abstract

Following the title, the abstract is the most important device for attracting the attention of readers. Personally, I have always advocated writing the first draft of the abstract before writing the remainder of the text. This forces the author to identify the principal achievements at an early stage. Like the title, the abstract needs to be as short as possible and as long as necessary. Its function is to summarize all the main results. I know that many experienced colleagues disagree with my suggestion of writing the first draft of the abstract before writing the main body of the text. However, my suggestion is not meant to be an apodictic rule. You must find out what best suits you.

Drafting the title and abstract at an early stage presupposes that you already have a clear picture of your achievement. If you do not have that clear picture, then a good suggestion is to arrange all your diagrams and tables in a logical sequence, and then write the text around that.

The abstract needs to contain as much quantitative information as possible. If you have new and significant data, give them in the abstract!

The introduction

The introduction should state the motivation and the aim of the presented research and refer to all relevant literature. If the paper is intended for a specialised journal, avoid rehashing simple textbook knowledge, as you can assume that expert readers will already be acquainted with it. In more general journals, some wider introductory remarks may be necessary.

When you discuss earlier works in your field, do not focus purely on their shortcomings. Make sure that you acknowledge their achievements. Be fair in your presentation. Cite all relevant papers, at least the most important ones. Do not overcite your own papers.

At the end of the introduction, state what you have achieved and what you will present in the paper. Do not repeat the abstract. This is important for the entire paper: avoid repetitions!

The experimental part

This part should contain sufficient experimental details (chemicals, instruments, methods, etc.) for your work to be reproduced in another laboratory. If certain procedures or techniques have previously been published by you, or others, you may refer to those papers without repeating the details. However, the reference has to be accessible. I have seen papers in which the author wrote “the technique is described in Ref. X”. When reading Ref. X, I found the remark “the technique is described in Ref. Y”, and so forth until I gave up searching! This is unacceptable.

The results and discussions

In the past, many journals have demanded that the results and discussion be reported separately. Some journals still demand this. Especially in the case of highly multidisciplinary work it is necessary to present first the results of the different disciplines, followed by a joint discussion referring to all the disciplines. However, if possible, I advocate providing the results and discussion simultaneously, since the combined text is easier to understand.

The most important point in writing the results and discussion section is logical consistency . The most frequently seen weakness appears when authors forego logical consistency and instead provide a chronological history of their experiments. This is often copied from laboratory notebooks. One then finds phrases like “first we thought that x may be the reason for y, and we performed the following experiments… then it turned out that y has nothing to do with x, and we supposed that z might cause the observed effect. Then we did this, and later we did that, and in the end…”. Such historical summaries are extremely tedious for the reader, and may even be misleading.

In results and discussion , it is essential to illustrate the results with clear reference to figures and tables, and to arrange the results within a logical framework. Figures, having captions, and tables, having headings, should be understandable without reading the detailed text.

The conclusions

The most frequent fault is the copying of an abstract, or the minor modification of an abstract, without any reference to the context of the results. The abstract does not require justification of the work: the conclusions certainly do. The conclusions have to provide new insight into a field of research, and this must be explained. The best writers will also indulge in some speculations about future work. These should open the readers’ eyes to novel and unexpected applications of the findings.

When you have finished writing a manuscript, leave it for some time untouched, and then read it again after some days or weeks. You will discover that a fresh reading reveals flaws, repetitions, typos, etc., which you missed the first time around. You should also use that time to circulate the document among trusted friends and colleagues who may act as internal reviewers before external submission. You will be surprised what typos your friends find! The blindness of authors to their own typos is legendary. The modern spellcheckers of computer systems do not prevent all typos, but they are helpful. (They may even introduce further errors, if you are not attentive).

Who should be co-authors and who should be acknowledged for help?

The ethical guidelines of most scientific funding organisations (e.g. Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG)/German Research Council [ 7 ]) demand that everybody who has a distinct share, be it intellectual or experimental, in a paper has to be listed as a co-author. Any “honorary” co-authorship is not allowed! This is a clear statement, but a lot of questions may arise in specific cases. Since I cannot say it in a better way, I cite here from the DFG guidelines:

Guideline 14: Authorship An author is an individual who has made a genuine, identifiable contribution to the content of a research publication of text, data or software. All authors agree on the final version of the work to be published. Unless explicitly stated otherwise, they share responsibility for the publication. Authors seek to ensure that, as far as possible, their contributions are identified by publishers or infrastructure providers such that they can be correctly cited by users. Explanations: The contribution must add to the research content of the publication. What constitutes a genuine and identifiable contribution must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis and depends on the subject area in question. An identifiable, genuine contribution is deemed to exist particularly in instances in which a researcher—in a research-relevant way—takes part in the development and conceptual design of the research project, or the gathering, collection, acquisition or provision of data, software or sources, or the analysis/evaluation or interpretation of data, sources and conclusions drawn from them, or the drafting of the manuscript. If a contribution is not sufficient to justify authorship, the individual’s support may be properly acknowledged in footnotes, a foreword or an acknowledgement. Honorary authorship where no such contribution was made is not permissible. A leadership or supervisory function does not itself constitute co-authorship.

At some educational institutions, the rules for submitting a PhD thesis demand a certain number of submitted or published papers. Unfortunately, this occasionally leads to a sharing of authorship among two or more candidates, so that each of them reaches the desired number, although neither of them has a proper share in all the papers. This is unethical and is strongly condemned.

A very crucial point is that all co-authors must give their clear consent to the submission of the manuscript. Nowadays, most journals send emails to the co-authors informing them about the submission. However, this does not liberate principal authors from the moral imperative of sending their co-authors copies of the manuscript in advance of publication and asking for their consent! Similar advice applies to acknowledgements. Who would be happy about an acknowledgement in a paper that they disagree with?

Which journal should be chosen?

The manuscript should be submitted to a journal which is devoted to the branch of science concerned. Usually there are several journals available so authors need rational criteria for making a choice. Experienced authors typically decide on the basis of publishers’ reputations (journal citation metrics) or personal connections (networks of esteem). Nowadays, scientific information systems even make it possible to unearth obscure papers published in “wrong” journals, on the basis of the title, keywords and abstract. However, indifference to journal choice is not recommended as a career strategy!

Citation metrics have a history of about 200 years [ 8 ]. However the modern infatuation with citation metrics has been driven by their uncritical adoption by research organisations and promotion committees in making decisions about funding and promotion.

In 2012, the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment (DORA; https://sfdora.org ) criticized the use of “impact factors” for evaluating the merits of scientists. Since then, the criticism has intensified (see, e.g., [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ]). Authors are now in a serious conflict situation: should they follow the metrics, or should they choose a journal according to other quality measures? This question is difficult to answer.

What are other quality measures? In my view, one of the most important is the quality of its reviewers and their reports. Those reports are the best which are competent, fair and helpful. Journals which provide such reports should certainly be considered. But these high-quality journals can only be identified by long experience.

Ultimately, neither the Impact Factor nor the CiteScore of a journal is an unambiguous measure of the quality of a single paper. So students should not feel upset when their papers appear in low index journals, nor should they feel triumphant when their papers appear in high index journals.

In all cases authors should beware of publishing in predatory journals ( https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing ). Open access predatory journals publish manuscripts without serious review. They publish only for money.

Now, a final word about “open access” publishing: this is certainly the best way to disseminate scientific information; however, only if the journals operate a strict peer review. Some scientific publishers (e.g. Springer Nature, https://www.springernature.com/gp/open-research/institutional-agreements ) also have international agreements with universities and institutions to pay the costs of publishing.

How to respond to reviews of submitted manuscripts

It is very interesting to learn how the “peer review system” emerged and I suggest that students read about it in a paper by Csiszar in Nature [ 14 ]. Nowadays, when a manuscript is submitted to a reputable journal, it will first be read by members of the editorial board, who decide whether it should be sent out to referees (reviewers) or sent back to the authors. If serious deficiencies are identified then it is senseless to bother reviewers.

When you receive the reviews of your manuscript, normally at least two or three, you need to know what to do with them. In any event, you should be self-critical: if you get the report “publish as is” or a similar positive evaluation, do not image that your manuscript is perfect. Possibly the reviewer was not competent or was very sloppy in assessing your manuscript. Believe the positive evaluations only when you get two or three of them!

The other extreme may be a report saying “this is a very weak manuscript that should not be published”, without giving specific criticism. Such a report is not helpful and the editor must take the blame for accepting it and passing it to the author. Harsh criticisms require detailed justification, just as extraordinary claims require extraordinary proof.

Fortunately, most reviewers take their job very seriously and deliver clear and detailed reports. You, the author, should always presume that the reviewers are trying to help you to improve your manuscript. They are not your enemy, but on your side, and they are fair. If you do identify clear signs of unfairness, then you should turn to the editor and ask for further reports. It often happens that the first reaction of an author is “oh, this reviewer has completely misunderstood me” and then starts to write a long rebuttal to the editor, explaining all the misunderstandings! However, since reviewers are experts in their field, the author should realize that a likelier explanation of a poor review is the poor quality of the manuscript!

Of course, it really may be true that a reviewer has misunderstood a manuscript. However, in most cases, it is my experience as an editor that the misunderstandings result from deficiencies of the manuscript, such as confusing phrases. Therefore, it is my advice to ask yourself how this misunderstanding could have happened. Do not blame the reviewer; think about your own text!

When you prepare the revised manuscript, follow carefully the advice of the reviewers. In the revised manuscript, you should highlight all the revised parts, which makes it easy for the editor and reviewers to see how you have responded. Your revised manuscript also needs to be accompanied by a detailed document (rebuttal) in which you list the changes and give your explanations for the revisions. Certainly, you are not obliged to do everything as requested by the reviewers. If you have good arguments against the reviewer’s proposals, bring them forward, and it will be up to the editor and reviewers to accept or to reject them.

It goes without saying that it is unacceptable to submit a rejected manuscript to another journal (sometimes even the same journal) without any revisions. This is profoundly disrespectful. When a manuscript has been rejected by a journal, you are of course free to submit it elsewhere, but you need to pay attention to the previous reviews.

Conclusions

Writing a scientific paper is an art as well as a science. With all its dry scientific data and equations, it must nevertheless provide an exciting and fascinating story, in which the leitmotif is present in all parts. It should never be boring.

Publishing scientific results is a very serious task and authors must adhere to the highest ethical standards. It is neither a game nor a routine. Always remember that a published paper will remain forever attached to your name. Do not try to split your work into several pieces to increase the number of your publications. The scientific community is already overwhelmed by a flood of second-rate “minimalist” papers. Reviewers are also inundated with reviewing requests. One solid and comprehensive paper is worth much more than five short papers with tedious repetitions.

It is on record that when a young aspirant asked Faraday the secret of his success as a scientific investigator, he replied: “The secret is comprised in three words—work, finish, publish.”

Gladstone JH (1874) Michael Faraday. Macmillan, London, p 122

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Acknowledgements

The following colleagues have provided very valuable suggestions: Antonio Doménech-Carbó (Valencia), György Inzelt (Budapest), Sigurd Lenzen (Hannover), Michael Hermes (Berlin), Heike Kahlert (Greifswald), Uwe Schröder (Greifswald) and my wife Gudrun Scholz. I am grateful for general advice from Stephen Fletcher (Loughborough), and especially thankful to him for his elegant language editing. Wilhelmine Klamt (Greifswald) is acknowledged for having drawn the graphic abstract.

Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.

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Scholz, F. Writing and publishing a scientific paper. ChemTexts 8 , 8 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40828-022-00160-7

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How to Write and Publish Scientific Paper Coursera Answers

How to Write and Publish Scientific Paper Coursera Answers

In this blog you will find the correct answer of the coursera quiz how to write and publish scientific paper coursera answers mixsaver always try to brings best blogs and best coupon codes  , literature review.

1. Question 1 How would you define the knowledge frontier? (only one good answer)

  • Your own progression in terms of scientific knowledge
  • The separation between different types of results (qualitative vs quantitative)
  • The separation between what is known and what is unknown in terms of scientific knowledge
  • The separation between different academic fields and scientific communities

2. Question 2 What quote below could be used to represent scientific research? (one good answer)

  • “Since we cannot know all that there is to be known about anything, we ought to known a little about everything”
  • “I suppose it is tempting, if the only tool you have is a hammer, to treat everything as if it were a nail”
  • “The limits of my language means the limits of my world”
  • “If I have seen further, It is by standing on the shoulders of giants”

3. Question 3 What different dimensions of originality could you think of for your academic paper? (several good answers)

  • Leading new empirical work
  • Producing an original synthesis
  • Leading trans-disciplinary research
  • Interpreting known ideas in a new ways
  • Finding a new field of research

1. Question 1 What is the first thing to do to in order to find references? (one good answer)

Ask to advisor, colleagues for references

Ask your research question to google

Think about keywords that fits your research question

2. Question 2 How to read an article? (several good answers)

With a highlighter, to highlight the most important ideas, concepts…

With your memory, because you remember everything

With a pen and a paper (or any other medium, notebook, computer, etc.)

With someone talking with you in the same time about completely something else

1. Question 1 How would you define the literature gap? (one good answer)

A hole between two scientific papers

A too well documented theoretical space that you need to mobilize for your paper

A blank theoretical space, that you really hope at least to partially fill thanks to your paper

The reason why researchers don’t understand the problem you want to resolve

2. Question 2 How would you define the research question? (one good answer)

The keystone of the paper, a question justifying your literature review, data, methodoly, results and contributions

A theoretical blank space needed to be filled by a research program

A theoretical/empirical element you find in every paper you cite in your academic paper

The question you raise at the end of the paper, to further the academic work started in this paper

The bibliography

1. Question 1 What is the order of bibliographic elements? (one good answer)

Author, date, title, journal

Author, title, journal, date

Author, journal, date, title

Title, author, date, journal

It will depend of the targeted journal

Peer-graded Assignment: Peer reviewing of an abstract

Peer-graded assignment: now it is your turn: the checking list.

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  • v.11(2); 2013 Apr

How to write a scientific manuscript for publication

Giancarlo maria liumbruno.

1 Immunohaematology, Transfusion Medicine and Clinical Pathology Units, “San Giovanni Calibita” Fatebenefratelli Hospital, AFAR, Rome, Italy

Claudio Velati

2 Immunohaematology and Transfusion Medicine Department, Ospedale Maggiore Pizzardi, Azienda USL Bologna, Bologna, Italy

Patrizio Pasqualetti

3 Medical Statistics & Information Technology, Fatebenefratelli Association for Research, Isola Tiberina, Rome, Italy

Massimo Franchini

4 Department of Transfusion Medicine and Haematology, Carlo Poma Hospital, Mantua, Italy

Introduction

The origins and development of the scientific and technical press can be traced back to 1665 when the first “modern” scientific papers appeared and were characterized by non standardised form and style 1 . Subsequently, nearly 300 years ago 2 , in an attempt to ensure that articles met the journal’s standards of quality and scientific validity, the peer-reviewed process for scientific manuscripts was born in England and France. Since then, there has been an enormous proliferation of scientific journals and manuscripts so that, at present, the numbers of biomedical papers published annually by over 20,000 journals, at a rate of 5,500 new papers per day, far exceeds 2,000,000 1 , 2 .

Published scientific papers and professional meetings are really essential to disseminate relevant information and research findings. However, most of the abstracts of presentations given at scientific meetings are usually available only in conference proceedings although they have the potential to be subsequently published as articles in peer-reviewed journals.

A recently published Cochrane review showed that only 44.5% of almost 30,000 scientific meeting abstracts were published as articles 3 . No association between full publication and authors’ country of origin was detected. Factors associated with full publication included acceptance vs rejection of abstracts for oral or poster presentations, acceptance for oral presentations rather than poster sessions, “positive” results, using the report authors’ definition of “positive”, randomised trial study design and basic rather than clinical research.

Possible reasons for failed publication include lack of time, research still underway, problems with co-authors and negative results 4 . Undoubtedly, lack of the necessary skills and experience in the process of writing and publishing is another possible contributing factor also in the field of Transfusion Medicine although the specialists in this discipline are currently adopting the principles and research methodologies that support evidence-based medicine 5 , and high-level research is actually being carried out at the same rate as in all medical specialties.

There are three broad groups of manuscripts: original scientific articles, reviews and case reports. Although case reports are part of the evidence hierarchy in evidence-based practice, albeit at a lower level, and case series are incorporated in a significant proportion of health technology assessments 6 , this article will address the multiple steps required in writing original articles and reviews with the aim of providing the reader with the necessary tools to prepare, submit and successfully publish a manuscript.

The anatomy of a paper: from origin to current format

The history of scientific journals dates from 1665, when the French “Journal des sçavans” and the English “Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society” first began systematically publishing research results 7 . From then on, the initial structure of scientific papers evolved gradually from letters (usually by a single author, with a polite style and contemporarily addressing multiple subjects) and experimental reports (essentially descriptive and presenting experiences and effects in chronological order) to a better structured and more fluent form characterised by an embryonic description of methods and interpretation of results. This evolved way of reporting experiments gradually replaced the letter form.

It was not, however, until the second half of the 19 th century that the method description became fully developed and a comprehensive organisation of the manuscripts known as “theory-experiment-discussion” emerged 1 . At the beginning of the last century a gradual decrease of the use of the literary style coincided with a growing standardisation of the editorial rules that paved the way for the formal established Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion (IMRAD) structure of scientific papers, which was adopted in the 1980s.

At present, IMRAD is the format encouraged for the text of observational (i.e. retrospective/descriptive) and experimental (i.e. randomised controlled) studies by the “Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals” which have become the most important and widely accepted (by over 500 biomedical journals) guide to writing, publishing, and editing in international biomedical publications 8 . The Uniform Requirements are released by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE), an evolution of the initial group of Journal Editors who met for the first time in Vancouver in 1978 and subsequently issued a number of editorial policy statements and guidelines for manuscript submission.

According to the ICMJE, “this so-called IMRAD structure is not an arbitrary publication format but rather a direct reflection of the process of scientific discovery” 9 . In addition it facilitates modular reading and locating of specific information, which is normally found in pre-established sections of an article 7 .

“Long articles may need subheadings within some sections (especially Results and Discussion) to clarify their content. Other types of articles, such as case reports, reviews and editorials, probably need to be formatted differently” 9 .

This format does not comprise other important and integral parts of the article, such as the Title Page, Abstract, Acknowledgements, Figures and Tables (comprising their legends) and References 8 .

There are often slight variations from one journal’s format to another but every journal has instructions to authors available on their website and it is crucial that authors download and comply with them.

The latest edition of the Uniform Requirements was updated in April 2010; it is available at the ICMJE website and is an essential guideline for all authors writing a biomedical manuscript 9 .

Consolidated standards of reporting trials

Medical science depends entirely on the transparent reporting of clinical trials 10 .

Unfortunately, several reviews have documented deficiencies in reports of clinical trials 11 – 15 .

In 1996, a group of scientists and editors developed the CONsolidated Standards Of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) statement which is intended to improve the reporting of a randomised, controlled trial (RCT), enabling readers to understand the design of a trial, its conduct, analysis and interpretation and to assess the validity of its results 16 . It emphasises that this can only be achieved through complete transparency from authors.

The CONSORT statement was updated in 2001 and after the 2007 meeting the statement was further revised and published as CONSORT 2010 which is the most up-to-date version and can be freely viewed and downloaded through one of the several link to Journals available at the CONSORT website under the section “CONSORT Statement - Downloads” 17 . The statement facilitates critical appraisal and interpretation of RCT and many leading medical journals and major international editorial groups have endorsed it.

The statement consists of a checklist (25 items) and a flow diagram that authors can use for reporting a RCT. The checklist items pertain to the content of the Title, Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion and Other information. The flow diagram is intended to depict the passage of participants through a RCT (enrolment, intervention allocation, follow-up and analysis). It is strongly recommended that the CONSORT Statement be used in conjunction with the CONSORT Explanation and Elaboration Document which is available at the CONSORT website under the above mentioned section 17 .

Another major point to consider is the obligation to register clinical trials 9 .

In September 2004 the ICMJE changed their policy and decided they would consider trials for publication only if they had been registered before the enrolment of the first participant. The ICMJE accepts registration in the international registries listed in Table I .

International trial registries acceptable to the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors and relevant websites.

Strengthening the reporting of observational studies in epidemiology

The reporting of observational studies frequently lacks details and is not clear enough 18 , 19 . Consequently the quality is poor although many questions in medical research are investigated in observational studies and overwhelming evidence is also extrapolated from them 20 . In fact, observational studies are more suitable for the detection of rare or late adverse effects of treatments, and are more likely to provide an indication of what is achieved in daily medical practice 21 .

To improve the reporting of observational studies (cohort, case-control or cross-sectional studies) a group of methodologists, researchers and editors developed a useful checklist of 22 items: the StrengThening the Reporting of OBservational studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) Statement 21 . The checklist items pertain to the content of the Title, Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion and Other information sections of articles. The STROBE checklists can be freely viewed and downloaded at the STROBE website under the section “Available checklists” 22 . They also include a draft checklist for conference abstracts (items to be included when reporting observational studies in a conference abstract) pertaining to the content of the following sections: Title, Authors, Study design, Objective, Methods, Results and Conclusion.

The STROBE Statement provides guidance to authors on how to improve the reporting of observational studies, it facilitates critical appraisal and interpretation of studies and is widely supported by reviewers, a growing number of biomedical journal editors and readers.

The STROBE checklist is best used in conjunction with an explanation and elaboration article which discusses each of the 22 checklist items, gives methodological background, publishes examples of transparent reporting and is freely available at the STROBE Statement website under the above mentioned section through the link with the Journals in which the document has been published (PLoS Medicine, Annals of Internal Medicine and Epidemiology) 22 .

As review articles comprehensively cover a specific biomedical topic and justify future research directions, they require that the author extensively review and master the literature and then develop some general statements and conclusions with practical implications for patients’ care 23 , 24 . In addition, they should provide an updated reference for those readers interested in broadening their knowledge of critical issues. Review articles are, therefore, important not only for younger physicians early in their career but also for senior academic staff as they represent a tool for intellectual enrichment and enhancement of the standards of research. Writing a review requires knowledge and continuous improvement of qualifications in line with the accumulation of better and updated scientific literature evidence. For this reason, journals often invite experts on a specific topic to write a review article. However, authors can also ask Editors if they would be interested in publishing a review article on a particular, topical, relevant and debated issue.

As reviews are the most accessed among the various types of articles and contribute substantially to the impact factor of journals, obviously they are welcomed and encouraged by many journals and have become an inseparable part of the writing scientific culture.

The three basic types of literature reviews are narrative reviews (which include editorials, commentaries and narrative overviews or non-systematic narrative reviews), qualitative systematic reviews and quantitative systematic reviews (meta-analyses) ( Table II ) 25 .

Summary of the types of literature reviews.

Editorials, typically written by the editor of the journal or an invited guest, may be a narrative review if the author retrieves and summarises information about a particular topic for the reader 25 . Usually, these types of narrative reviews are based upon a short, select and narrowly focused review of only a few papers. However, editorials may be no more than the editor’s comments regarding a current issue of the journal or a current event in health care and do not, therefore, automatically qualify as narrative reviews.

Commentaries

Commentaries may also be written as a narrative review; however, they are typically written with a particular opinion being expressed 25 . Research methodology is not usually presented in these articles which reflect the author’s biased synthesis of other articles. Commentaries are usually shorter than a full-length review article and the author should be an expert in the content area of the commentary. Usually, the purpose of a commentary is to stimulate academic debate between the journal’s readers.

Narrative reviews

Non-systematic narrative reviews are comprehensive narrative syntheses of previously published information 26 . This type of literature review reports the author’s findings in a condensed format that typically summarises the contents of each article. Authors of narrative overviews are often acknowledged experts in the field and have conducted research themselves. Editors sometimes solicit narrative overviews from specific authors in order to bring certain issues to light. Although the bibliographic research methodology is an obligatory section in systematic reviews and meta-analyses, it is also becoming an inseparable part of narrative literature reviews. Providing information on the databases accessed, terms, inclusion and exclusion criteria and time limits adds objectivity to the main messages and conclusions. It is advisable to use only credible databases (at least two or three) which only select high-quality publications that contain the most up-to-date information (see Table III ) 24 . The best way to organise the analysis of the sources in the main text of a narrative biomedical review is to transform information from the retrieved publications into bibliographic cards with a short description of the main results, level of evidence, strengths and limitations of each study and relevance to each section of the manuscript. Furthermore, the readability of a review can be improved by including a few self-explanatory tables, boxes, and figures synthesising essential information and conveying original messages 24 . We also suggest the use of software packages for reference management, which saves time during the multiple revisions.

Main online libraries, catalogues and databases.

In conclusion, a successful narrative review should have the following characteristics: be well-structured, synthesise the available evidence pertaining to the topic, convey a clear message and draw conclusions supported by data analysis.

Qualitative systematic reviews

Qualitative systematic reviews are a type of literature review that employ detailed, rigorous and explicit methods and are, therefore, a more powerful evidence-based source to garner clinical information than narrative reviews, case reports, case series, and poorly conducted cohort studies. A detailed bibliographic research based upon a focused question or purpose is the peculiar characteristic of a systematic review 27 . These reviews are called qualitative because the process by which the individual studies are integrated includes a summary and critique of the findings derived from systematic methods, but does not statistically combine the results of all of the studies reviewed.

Quantitative systematic reviews

A quantitative systematic review or meta-analysis critically evaluates each paper and statistically combines the results of the studies 28 . The authors of a meta-analysis employ all of the rigorous methodology of qualitative systematic reviews and, in addition, gather the original patients’ data from each of the studies under review, pool it all together in a database and produce the appropriate statistics on this larger sample. While this process leads to a more powerful and generalizable conclusion, which is the strength of the meta-analysis, on the other hand it can pool together studies that are very heterogeneous which is the main drawback of a quantitative systematic review. Nevertheless, well-executed quantitative systematic reviews constitute the highest level of evidence for medical decision making 28 .

The recently published Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement aims to help improve reporting, focusing on systematic reviews of RCT. The Statement consists of a checklist of 27 essential items for transparent reporting and a flow diagram for the phases of study selection and is accompanied by the PRISMA Explanation and Elaboration Document, which, among other things, provides examples of good reporting for the various review sections 29 .

A further guidance on the reporting of systematic reviews has been published by the Cochrane Collaboration, an international organisation that prepares, updates and publishes systematic reviews of the effects of health-care interventions following a standardised format 30 .

Preparing to write a manuscript Background information

The question or hypothesis formulated by the investigator is the common starting point to search the relevant published literature for an answer 31 . Gathering the background information through an extensive literature search relevant to the topic of interest is the subsequent essential step. Peer reviewers are often experts and not citing important articles poses the manuscript at risk of rejection. It is advisable to consult at least two or three credible databases (see Table III ) to identify the crucial relevant articles and to track down “landmark” articles. In addition, avoid using papers published more than 10 years ago and do not rely on just the abstracts but obtain full-text articles. Articles relevant to the research topic and published in the journal in which the paper is to be submitted should be reviewed and cited 32 .

Last but not least, the bibliographical search should also aim at finding recently published articles similar to the one the author intends to submit. In fact, a journal can be less interested in publishing such a manuscript unless the results reflect new or different findings.

Target journal

It can be worth thinking about this issue before starting to write as a proper choice of the journal can affect not only the writing style but also the ease of publication and the prompt dissemination of research. Ideally, the target journal should be the one in which similar work has been published 32 .

Electronic and open-access journals are the latest resources for publishing and data dissemination available on the scientific journal horizon.

It is also worth considering an appropriate level of impact factor or journal quality. The impact factor of a journal is a measure reflecting the average number of citations to recent articles published in science and social science journals. It is determined by the ratio of the number of citations of papers from that journal in the whole of the biomedical literature over a 2-year period. It is frequently used as a proxy for the relative importance of a journal within its field, with journals with higher impact factors deemed to be more important than those with lower ones.

It is also extremely important to read the instructions to authors section of the selected journal carefully. In fact, although there is a general style for most biomedical journals as agreed by the ICMJE in the Uniform Requirements 9 , individual journals may differ slightly in detail.

It is always best to sort out authorship before writing a manuscript as authorship order can be a source of problems once the paper has been written 23 .

Several guidelines relating to authorship are available and this issue has been extensively addressed in a recently published review article by Elizabeth Wager 33 . Most guidelines on the authorship of scientific articles are focused more on creative and intellectual aspects of research than on routine or technical contributions.

Alhough not universally accepted, the authorship criteria suggested by the ICMJE are the ones most widely promoted by medical journals 9 . According to these criteria, co-authors should: (i) substantially contribute to conception and design of the study, acquisition of data, or analysis and interpretation of data; (ii) draft the article or revise it critically for important intellectual content; and (iii) approve the final version.

The authors are listed in decreasing order of their contribution and the senior author, or mentor, should be the last but this convention has never been codified 33 .

It is advisable to provide accurate affiliations and contacts as they will be published on PubMed as well as in the journal but it is also important to agree on the corresponding author who should have full access to the study data and through the provided e-mail address will be the link with the scientific community for the future 1 .

Ethical issues

In addition to the authorship discussed above, there are several ethical issues involved in writing a paper. These include fabrication of data, duplicate publication, plagiarism, misuse of statistics, manipulation of images and inadequate or obviously false citations 31 .

A must-read for all those who are involved in any editorial activity are the guidelines released by the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) which is a forum for editors and publishers of peer-reviewed journals to discuss all aspects of publication ethics 34 . COPE provides advice to editors and publishers on all aspects of publication ethics and, in particular, how to handle cases of research and publication misconduct.

Writing the manuscript

Several models for the initial draft exist. A useful algorithm for writing a scientific manuscript is the one recently published by O’Connor and Holmquist 35 . According to these authors, the writing should start with making figures and tables, and then proceed with summary statements (the conclusions summarising the major contributions of the manuscript to the scientific community), identification of the audience, materials and methods, results, discussion, references, introduction, title and conclusion. The aim of this algorithm is to give the structural backbone to the manuscript and is designed to overcome writer’s block and to assist scientists who are not native English speakers.

A further and more general strategy to increase productivity during the early phases of manuscript writing is to ignore at the outset all the details that can be approached later such as structure, grammar and spelling.

The sequence of writing should address the following core sections of the paper in the order from first to last: methods, results, discussion and introduction 31 , 36 , 37 .

“Like every well-written story, a scientific manuscript should have a beginning (Introduction), middle (Materials and Methods), and an end (Results). The Discussion (the moral of the story) puts the study in perspective. The Abstract is an opening summary of the story and the Title gives the story a name” 38 . However, as correctly pointed out by Michael McKay, “writing is not necessarily in the temporal order of the final document (i.e. the IMRAD format)” 39 .

The take-home messages are, therefore: (i) a clear understanding of the essential components of each of these sections is critical to the successful composition of a scientific manuscript; (ii) the proper order of writing greatly facilitates the ease of writing; (iii) the approach to writing can be customised by authors on the basis both of the subject they are dealing with and their personal experience; (iv) the CONSORT 16 , 17 , STROBE 21 , 22 or PRISMA 29 statement must be used as a guidance document for the appropriate reporting of the type of study the authors are dealing with 31 , 32 , 38 .

In the following part of this paper the different sections of a manuscript will be dealt with in the order they are presented in the final document.

Title, keywords and abstract

The title is determinant for the indexing process of the article and greatly contributes to the visibility of the paper. It should reflect the essence of the article, its novelty and its relevance to the biomedical field it deals with 24 . It should be clear, brief, specific, not include jargon or non-standard and unexplained abbreviations, reflect the purpose of the study and state the issue(s) addressed rather than the conclusions 38 . Indicative titles are, therefore, better than declarative ones. Obviously, the title and abstract should correlate with each other.

Available evidence suggests that the presence of a colon in the title positively correlates with the number of citations 40 . In other words, the more specific and accurate the description of the content is, the more chance the manuscript has of being cited 38 .

The title of systematic reviews should ideally follow the participants, interventions, comparisons, outcomes, and study design (PICOS) approach, and include the terms “systematic review”, “meta-analysis”, or both 41 .

The keywords enable the database searching of the article and should be provided in compliance with the instructions to authors. A careful choice from the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) in the National Library of Medicine (NLM) controlled vocabulary thesaurus used for indexing articles in PubMed greatly increases the chances the paper is retrieved and cited by other authors 42 .

The abstract is the last section to be written but it is the most important part of a paper because it is usually the first to be read and readers use the information contained in it to decide whether to read the whole article or not. It should be a concise summary of the manuscript and no longer than specified in the instructions to authors. Usually, abstracts do not contain references and abbreviations and acronyms are not always allowed. If required, it has to be structured in a specific way. For example, original articles submitted to Blood Transfusion, require an abstract of no more than 2,000 characters (including spaces), structured as follows: Background, Materials and methods, Results, Discussion 43 .

A good abstract should be easy to understand and broadly appealing, informative but not too detailed. It can start with a sentence or two outlining the work; then the disease and/or system studied must be introduced and what was previously unknown has to be stated in order to provide a brief overview of the current state-of-the art knowledge on the issue. The methods must be summarised without too many details; the major findings must be clearly indicated and followed by a sentence or two showing the major implications of the paper that must be consistent with the study conclusions without overestimating their possible relevance 44 . In the abstract the present tense should be used to refer to facts already established in the field, while the findings from the current study should be dealt with in the past tense.

The aim of the introduction is to introduce the topic to the readers in a straightforward way, avoiding excessive wordiness 42 . For this reason it should be short and focused, comprising approximately three paragraphs in one page 37 .

The first paragraph should mention the questions or issues that outline the background of the study and establish, using the present tense, the context, relevance, or nature of the problem, question, or purpose (what is known) 23 , 37 .

The second paragraph may include the importance of the problem and unclear issues (what is unknown).

The last paragraph should state the rationale, hypothesis, main objective, or purpose thus clearly identifying the hypothesis to be treated and the questions addressed in the manuscript (why the study was done).

One of the most common mistakes is the failure to make a clear statement of purpose. This is because many research projects, especially retrospective clinical studies, do not start at the beginning (with the identification of a specific question, followed by methods and data collection) but begin by collecting data without first identifying a specific question to be addressed that must in any case be established before beginning to write 38 . Data or conclusions from the study should not be presented or anticipated in the introduction section.

Writing the introduction at the end of the process prevents any block and it is easier after the methods, results and discussion have been completed.

Materials and methods

The methods section is one of the most important parts of a scientific manuscript and its aim is to give the reader all the necessary details to replicate the study.

CONSORT 16 , 17 , STROBE 21 , 22 and PRISMA 29 statements provide a guideline relevant to the particular type of study 2 , 42 .

The two essential elements of this section are a clear presentation of the study design and the identification and description of the measurement parameters used to evaluate the purpose of the study.

It is, therefore, necessary to provide a thorough explanation of the research methodology, including the study design, data collection, analysis principles and rationale. Special attention should be paid to the sample selection, including inclusion and exclusion criteria and to any relevant ethical considerations. A description of the randomisation or other group assignment methods used should be included, as should be the pre-specified primary and secondary outcome(s) and other variables.

According to the Uniform Requirements 9 , in the case of experimental/clinical reports involving patients or volunteers, the authors must provide information about institutional, regulatory and ethical Committee authorisation, informed consent from patients and volunteers and the observance of the latest release of the Helsinki Declaration 45 .

When reporting experiments on animals, authors should state which institutional authority granted approval for the animal experiments 9 .

Finally, in addition to describing and identifying all the measurement parameters used, it is also important to describe any unusual statistical methodology applied, how subjects were recruited and compensated and how compliance was measured (if applicable).

The results section consists of the organised presentation of the collected data. All measurements that the authors described in the materials and methods section must be reported in the results section and be presented in the same order as they were in that section 35 . The past tense should be used as results were obtained in the past. Author(s) must ensure that they use proper words when describing the relationship between data or variables. These “data relation words” should be turned into “cause/effect logic and mechanistic words” in the discussion section. A clear example of the use of this appropriate language can be found in the article by O’Connor 35 .

This section should include only data, including negative findings, and not background or methods or results of measurements that were not described in the methods section 2 . The interpretation of presented data must not be included in this section.

Results for primary and secondary outcomes can be reported using tables and figures for additional clarity. The rationale for end-point selection and the reason for the non-collection of information on important non-measured variables must be explained 35 .

Figures and tables should be simple, expand text information rather than repeat it, be consistent with reported data and summarise them 23 . In addition, they should be comprehensible on their own, that is, with only title, footnotes, abbreviations and comments.

References in this section should be limited to methods developed in the manuscript or to similar methods reported in the literature.

Patients’ anonymity is essential unless consent for publication is obtained.

The main objective of the discussion is to explain the meaning of the results.

This section should be structured as if it were a natural flow of ideas and should start with a simple statement of the key findings and whether they are consistent with the study objectives enunciated in the last paragraph of the introduction. The strengths and the limitations of the research and what the study adds to current knowledge should then be addressed 42 .

Through logical arguments, the authors should convert the relations of the variables stated in the results section into mechanistic interpretations of cause and effect using the present tense as these relations do exist at present 35 . In addition, they should describe how the results are consistent or not with similar studies and discuss any confounding factors and their impact.

They should avoid excessive wordiness and other commonly made errors such as 38 : (i) including information unrelated to the stated purpose of the article; (ii) repeating detailed data previously presented in the Results section; (iii) not interpreting and not critically analysing results of other studies reviewed and cited but rather just repeating their findings; (iv) presenting new data or new details about techniques and enrolment criteria, and (v) overstating the interpretation of the results.

Another common mistake is to forget to criticise the research described in the manuscript by highlighting the limitations of the study. The value of a scientific article is enhanced not only by showing the strengths but also the weak points of the evidence reported in the paper.

The conclusion is a separate, last paragraph that should present a concise and clear “take home” message avoiding repetition of concepts already expressed 32 . The authors should also avoid excessive generalizations of the implications of the study and remember that except for RCT there can only be testable hypotheses and observed associations, rather than rigorous proof of cause and effect 42 . Possible implications for current clinical practice or recommendations should be addressed only if appropriate.

Finally, the areas for possible improvement with future studies should be addressed avoiding ambiguous comments such as “there is a need for further research” and if there is a real need for further studies on the topic it is strongly advisable to be specific about the type of research suggested.

Acknowledgements

All contributors who do not meet the criteria for authorship should be listed in an Acknowledgements section 9 . The authors should, therefore, add a statement on the type of assistance, if any, received from the sponsor or the sponsor’s representative and include the names of any person who provided technical help, writing assistance, editorial support or any type of participation in writing the manuscript.

In addition, “when submitting a manuscript authored by a group, the corresponding author should clearly indicate the preferred citation and identify all individual authors as well as the group name. Journals generally list other members of the group in the Acknowledgments. The NLM indexes the group name and the names of individuals the group has identified as being directly responsible for the manuscript; it also lists the names of collaborators if they are listed in Acknowledgments” 9 .

The first suggestion is to follow the journal’s policies and formatting instructions, including those for books and web-based references. Other general considerations related to references, including the following ones, can be found in the Uniform Requirements 9 .

References to review articles are an efficient way to guide readers to a body of literature but they do not always reflect original work accurately. Papers accepted but not yet published should be designated as “in press” or “forthcoming” and information from manuscripts submitted but not accepted should be cited in the text as “unpublished observations”.

Avoid using abstracts as references and citing a “personal communication” unless it provides essential information not available from a public source. In this case the name of the person and date of communication should be cited in parentheses in the text. Do not include manuscripts “in submission”

In addition it is important to remember that “authors are responsible for checking that none of the references cite retracted articles except in the context of referring to the retraction. Authors can identify retracted articles in MEDLINE by using the following search term, where pt in square brackets stands for publication type: Retracted publication [pt] in PubMed” 9 . Last but not least, remember that if a reviewer does not have access to any references he or she can ask the author for a full (pdf) copy of the relevant works.

Tips for successful revision of a manuscript

Most papers are accepted after some degree of revision. In some cases, a manuscript may be rejected after internal and editorial review only.

The process of revising a manuscript and successfully responding to the comments of reviewers and Editor can be challenging. Little has been published addressing the issue of effectively revising a manuscript according to the (minor or major) comments of reviewers. This topic was recently extensively and pragmatically covered by James M. Provenzale 46 . The ten principles for revising a manuscript suggested by the author are reported in Table IV .

Ten principles for revising a manuscript suggested by James M. Provenzale 46 .

Many manuscripts are not published simply because the authors have not followed the few simple rules needed to write a good article. We hope that this paper provides the reader with the basic steps to build a draft manuscript and an outline of the process needed for publishing a manuscript. However, in Table V we summarise the ten principles we strongly recommend to comply with in order to improve the likelihood of publication of a scientific manuscript 47 .

Ten principles to improve the likelihood of publication of a scientific manuscript, suggested by James M. Provenzale 47 .

The Authors declare no conflicts of interest.

how to write and publish a scientific paper coursera answers

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Management research center école polytechnique, mooc named "how to write and publish a scientific paper".

A MOOC, conceived by Ph.D. students from Ecole Polytechnique, has been available since February the 29th 2016, on Coursera. This MOOC is perfect for Ph.D. or graduate students coming from any field, to help them deal with writing and publishing a scientific paper.

how to write and publish a scientific paper coursera answers

How to write an article and publish it in Nature or Science? The MOOC " How to write a scientific paper" , conceived by seven Ph.D. students from Ecole Polytechnique, opened in English February the 29th, 2016 on American platform Coursera , deals with this exact issue.

To help graduate and Ph.D. students who want to publish their work, six Ph.D. students from the  Center for Management Studies (Centre de Recherches en Gestion) and a Ph.D. student from Moleculary Chemistry lab designed an online class focusing on the writing and the publication of a scientific paper. To do so, Mattias Mano, Ph.D. student, managed the pedagogical team constituted of Ariadna Anisimov, Héloïse Berkowitz, Mathias Guérineau, Arnaud Jaoul, Haruki Sawamura and Alexandre Viard. Mathis Plapp, senior scientist at CNRS, supervised scientific content.

The MOOC is composed of four sections. The first one focuses on the context and the functioning of scientific journals. In the second part, the class provides advices on how to frame a research project. In the third section, the course describes the structure of an article and the use of concrete bibliographical tools such as Zotero. Finally, students will learn how to build a tool, the check list that they have to use before sending their article to a journal.

The MOOC is taught in English, available on Coursera since February the 29th 2016. Access to the content is free but learners can pay for the cerficate.

Pioneer in term of MOOC, Ecole Polytechnique is the first French school that developed online training on the American platform Coursera since 2013. Since then, eleven courses have been created and Ecole Polytechnique continues to develop its offer with more than twenty new MOOC currently under production. More than 60 000 learners, coming from all around the word, have already followed training from the School.

>  MOOC "How to write a scientific paper" on Coursera

> MOOC on twitter (@phdmooc)

U.S. News & World Report Education takes an unbiased approach to our recommendations. When you use our links to buy products, we may earn a commission but that in no way affects our editorial independence.

How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper (Project-Centered Course)

How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper (Project-Centered Course)

About this course.

What you will achieve: In this project-based course, you will outline a complete scientific paper, choose an appropriate journal to which you'll submit the finished paper for publication, and prepare a checklist that will allow you to independently judge whether your paper is ready to submit. What you'll need to get started: This course is designed for students who have previous experience with academic research - you should be eager to adapt our writing and publishing advice to an existing personal project. If you just finished your graduate dissertation, just began your PhD, or are at a different stage of your academic journey or career and just want to publish your work, this course is for you. *About Project-Centered Courses: Project-Centered Courses are designed to help you complete a personally meaningful real-world project, with your instructor and a community of learners with similar goals providing guidance and suggestions along the way. By actively applying new concepts as you learn, you’ll master the course content more efficiently; you’ll also get a head start on using the skills you gain to make positive changes in your life and career. When you complete the course, you’ll have a finished project that you’ll be proud to use and share.

Add a Verified Certificate for $49 USD

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How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper (Project-Centered Course)

How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper (Project-Centered Course)

Key Information

About the content.

What you will achieve: In this project-based course, you will outline a complete scientific paper, choose an appropriate journal to which you'll submit the finished paper for publication, and prepare a checklist that will allow you to independently judge whether your paper is ready to submit. What you'll need to get started: This course is designed for students who have previous experience with academic research - you should be eager to adapt our writing and publishing advice to an existing personal project. If you just finished your graduate dissertation, just began your PhD, or are at a different stage of your academic journey or career and just want to publish your work, this course is for you. *About Project-Centered Courses: Project-Centered Courses are designed to help you complete a personally meaningful real-world project, with your instructor and a community of learners with similar goals providing guidance and suggestions along the way. By actively applying new concepts as you learn, you’ll master the course content more efficiently; you’ll also get a head start on using the skills you gain to make positive changes in your life and career. When you complete the course, you’ll have a finished project that you’ll be proud to use and share.

  • Week 1 - Understanding academia In this section of the MOOC, you will learn what is necessary before writing a paper: the context in which the scientist is publishing. You will learn how to know your own community, through different exemples, and then we will present you how scientific journ...
  • Week 2 - Before writing: delimiting your scientific paper A good paper do not loose focus throughout the entirety of its form. As such, we are going to give you a more detailed view on how to delimit your paper. We are going to lead you through your paper by taking a closer look at the paper definition which will ens...
  • Week 3 - Writing the paper: things you need to know In this part of the MOOC, you will learn how to write your paper. In a first part, we will focus on the structure of the paper, and then you will be able to see how to use bibliographical tools such as zotero. Finally you will be required to write your own abs...
  • Week 4 - After the writing: the check list After writing the paper comes the time of reading your paper a few times in order to get everything perfect.In this section you will learn how to remove a lot of mistakes you might have been writing. In the end, you will have to build your own checklist corres...

Instructors

Mathis Plapp Assistant Professor Physics Department

Content Designer

École Polytechnique combines research, teaching and innovation at the highest scientific and technological level in the world to meet the challenges of the 21st century. The leading French engineering school for over 200 years, its training promotes a culture of multidisciplinary scientific excellence, open to a strong humanist tradition.

It was founded in 1794 by the French National Convention under the name École centrale des travaux publics, and militarised in 1804 by Napoleon I. Originally located in Paris, the school has been in Palaiseau (Essonne) since 1976, at the heart of the Paris-Saclay technology cluster. It has the status of a public scientific, cultural and professional establishment (EPSCP-GE), is a military grande école whose engineering course is supervised by the Ministry of the Armed Forces and is a founding member of the Paris Polytechnic Institute.

Coursera is a digital company offering massive open online course founded by computer teachers Andrew Ng and Daphne Koller Stanford University, located in Mountain View, California. 

Coursera works with top universities and organizations to make some of their courses available online, and offers courses in many subjects, including: physics, engineering, humanities, medicine, biology, social sciences, mathematics, business, computer science, digital marketing, data science, and other subjects.

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How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper (Project-Centered Course) Coursera Quiz Answers 2022 [💯Correct Answer]

How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper (Project-Centered Course) Coursera Quiz Answers 2022 [💯Correct Answer]

Hello Peers, Today we are going to share all week’s assessment and quiz answers of the How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper (Project-Centered Course) course launched by Coursera totally free of cost ✅✅✅. This is a certification course for every interested student.

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About The Coursera

About how to write and publish a scientific paper (project-centered course) course, how journals work: the review process quiz answers, literature review quiz answers, main ideas quiz answers, the bibliography, more about this course.

Coursera , India’s biggest learning platform launched millions of free courses for students daily. These courses are from various recognized universities, where industry experts and professors teach very well and in a more understandable way.

Here, you will find How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper (Project-Centered Course) Exam Answers in Bold Color below.

These answers are updated recently and are 100% correct✅ answers of all week, assessment, and final exam answers of How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper (Project-Centered Course) from Coursera Free Certification Course.

In this project-based course, you will outline a complete scientific paper, choose an appropriate journal to which you’ll submit the finished paper for publication, and prepare a checklist that will allow you to independently judge whether your paper is ready to submit.

Course Apply Link – How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper (Project-Centered Course)

How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper (Project-Centered Course) Quiz Answers

Week 01: how to write and publish a scientific paper (project-centered course) quiz answers.

Q1. What is the keyword of the video? (one good answer)

  • Pure revise system
  • Pier resort system
  • Peer review system

Q2. Who does mainly read your article when you submit it to a journal? (one good answer)

  • Editors of other research journals
  • Reviewers in your own research field
  • Writers of other articles

Q3. Read the following text and choose an answer that properly fill the blank space.

The review process is characterized by:

  • ___________,
  • Acceptance ratio,
  • Time scale,
  • Content accuracy.

(one good answer)

  • Creditability
  • Accountability

Q4. Each journal tries to ensure the

  • Transparency,
  • And the __________ of the review system.

Q5. In this context, because of recent development of ICT (Information & Communication Technology), some journals try to develop a new publication system.

  • profitability

Week 02: How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper (Project-Centered Course) Quiz Answers

Q1. How would you define the knowledge frontier? (only one good answer)

  • Your own progression in terms of scientific knowledge
  • The separation between different types of results (qualitative vs quantitative)
  • The separation between what is known and what is unknown in terms of scientific knowledge
  • The separation between different academic fields and scientific communities

Q2. What quote below could be used to represent scientific research? (one good answer)

  • “Since we cannot know all that there is to be known about anything, we ought to known a little about everything”
  • “I suppose it is tempting, if the only tool you have is a hammer, to treat everything as if it were a nail”
  • “The limits of my language means the limits of my world”
  • “If I have seen further, It is by standing on the shoulders of giants”

Q3. What different dimensions of originality could you think of for your academic paper? (several good answers)

  • Leading new empirical work
  • Producing an original synthesis
  • Leading trans-disciplinary research
  • Interpreting known ideas in a new ways
  • Finding a new field of research

Q1. What is the first thing to do to in order to find references? (one good answer)

  • Ask to advisor, colleagues for references
  • Ask your research question to google
  • Think about keywords that fits your research question

Q2. How to read an article? (several good answers)

  • With someone talking with you in the same time about completely something else
  • With a pen and a paper (or any other medium, notebook, computer, etc.)
  • With a highlighter, to highlight the most important ideas, concepts…
  • With your memory, because you remember everything

Q1. How would you define the literature gap? (one good answer)

  • A hole between two scientific papers
  • A blank theoretical space, that you really hope at least to partially fill thanks to your paper
  • The reason why researchers don’t understand the problem you want to resolve
  • A too well documented theoretical space that you need to mobilize for your paper

Q2. How would you define the research question? (one good answer)

  • The keystone of the paper, a question justifying your literature review, data, methodoly, results and contributions
  • A theoretical blank space needed to be filled by a research program
  • A theoretical/empirical element you find in every paper you cite in your academic paper
  • The question you raise at the end of the paper, to further the academic work started in this paper

Week 03: How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper (Project-Centered Course) Quiz Answers

Q1. What is the order of bibliographic elements? (one good answer)

  • Author, date, title, journal
  • Author, title, journal, date
  • Author, journal, date, title
  • Title, author, date, journal
  • It will depend of the targeted journal

What you will achieve:

What you’ll need to get started: This course is designed for students who have previous experience with academic research – you should be eager to adapt our writing and publishing advice to an existing personal project.

If you just finished your graduate dissertation, just began your PhD, or are at a different stage of your academic journey or career and just want to publish your work, this course is for you. *About Project-Centered Courses: Project-Centered Courses are designed to help you complete a personally meaningful real-world project, with your instructor and a community of learners with similar goals providing guidance and suggestions along the way. By actively applying new concepts as you learn, you’ll master the course content more efficiently; you’ll also get a head start on using the skills you gain to make positive changes in your life and career. When you complete the course, you’ll have a finished project that you’ll be proud to use and share.

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Hopefully, this article will be useful for you to find all the  Week, final assessment, and Peer Graded Assessment Answers of the How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper (Project-Centered Course) Quiz of Coursera  and grab some premium knowledge with less effort. If this article really helped you in any way then make sure to share it with your friends on social media and let them also know about this amazing training. You can also check out our other course  Answers.  So, be with us guys we will share a lot more free courses and their exam/quiz solutions also, and follow our  Techno-RJ   Blog  for more updates.

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    How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper (Project-Centered Course) Taught in English 20 languages available Some content may not be translated Enroll for Free Starts Feb 13 Financial aid available 170,462 already enrolled Course Gain insight into a topic and learn the fundamentals Instructor: Mathis Plapp Included with Coursera Plus 4.6

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