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Theories of Child Development and Their Impact on Early Childhood Education and Care

  • Published: 29 October 2021
  • Volume 51 , pages 15–30, ( 2023 )

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  • Olivia N. Saracho   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4108-7790 1  

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Developmental theorists use their research to generate philosophies on children’s development. They organize and interpret data based on a scheme to develop their theory. A theory refers to a systematic statement of principles related to observed phenomena and their relationship to each other. A theory of child development looks at the children's growth and behavior and interprets it. It suggests elements in the child's genetic makeup and the environmental conditions that influence development and behavior and how these elements are related. Many developmental theories offer insights about how the performance of individuals is stimulated, sustained, directed, and encouraged. Psychologists have established several developmental theories. Many different competing theories exist, some dealing with only limited domains of development, and are continuously revised. This article describes the developmental theories and their founders who have had the greatest influence on the fields of child development, early childhood education, and care. The following sections discuss some influences on the individuals’ development, such as theories, theorists, theoretical conceptions, and specific principles. It focuses on five theories that have had the most impact: maturationist, constructivist, behavioral, psychoanalytic, and ecological. Each theory offers interpretations on the meaning of children's development and behavior. Although the theories are clustered collectively into schools of thought, they differ within each school.

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The author is grateful to Mary Jalongo for her expert editing and her keen eye for the smallest details.

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Saracho, O.N. Theories of Child Development and Their Impact on Early Childhood Education and Care. Early Childhood Educ J 51 , 15–30 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-021-01271-5

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1 Chapter 1: Introduction to Child Development

Chapter objectives.

After this chapter, you should be able to:

  • Describe the principles that underlie development.
  • Differentiate periods of human development.
  • Evaluate issues in development.
  • Distinguish the different methods of research.
  • Explain what a theory is.
  • Compare and contrast different theories of child development.

Introduction

Welcome to Child Growth and Development. This text is a presentation of how and why children grow, develop, and learn.

We will look at how we change physically over time from conception through adolescence. We examine cognitive change, or how our ability to think and remember changes over the first 20 years or so of life. And we will look at how our emotions, psychological state, and social relationships change throughout childhood and adolescence. 1

Principles of Development

There are several underlying principles of development to keep in mind:

  • Development is lifelong and change is apparent across the lifespan (although this text ends with adolescence). And early experiences affect later development.
  • Development is multidirectional. We show gains in some areas of development, while showing loss in other areas.
  • Development is multidimensional. We change across three general domains/dimensions; physical, cognitive, and social and emotional.
  • The physical domain includes changes in height and weight, changes in gross and fine motor skills, sensory capabilities, the nervous system, as well as the propensity for disease and illness.
  • The cognitive domain encompasses the changes in intelligence, wisdom, perception, problem-solving, memory, and language.
  • The social and emotional domain (also referred to as psychosocial) focuses on changes in emotion, self-perception, and interpersonal relationships with families, peers, and friends.

All three domains influence each other. It is also important to note that a change in one domain may cascade and prompt changes in the other domains.

  • Development is characterized by plasticity, which is our ability to change and that many of our characteristics are malleable. Early experiences are important, but children are remarkably resilient (able to overcome adversity).
  • Development is multicontextual. 2 We are influenced by both nature (genetics) and nurture (the environment) – when and where we live and our actions, beliefs, and values are a response to circumstances surrounding us.  The key here is to understand that behaviors, motivations, emotions, and choices are all part of a bigger picture. 3

Now let’s look at a framework for examining development.

Periods of Development

Think about what periods of development that you think a course on Child Development would address. How many stages are on your list? Perhaps you have three: infancy, childhood, and teenagers. Developmentalists (those that study development) break this part of the life span into these five stages as follows:

  • Prenatal Development (conception through birth)
  • Infancy and Toddlerhood (birth through two years)
  • Early Childhood (3 to 5 years)
  • Middle Childhood (6 to 11 years)
  • Adolescence (12 years to adulthood)

This list reflects unique aspects of the various stages of childhood and adolescence that will be explored in this book. So while both an 8 month old and an 8 year old are considered children, they have very different motor abilities, social relationships, and cognitive skills. Their nutritional needs are different and their primary psychological concerns are also distinctive.

Prenatal Development

Conception occurs and development begins. All of the major structures of the body are forming and the health of the mother is of primary concern. Understanding nutrition, teratogens (or environmental factors that can lead to birth defects), and labor and delivery are primary concerns.

Figure 1.1

Figure 1.1 – A tiny embryo depicting some development of arms and legs, as well as facial features that are starting to show. 4

Infancy and Toddlerhood

The two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A newborn, with a keen sense of hearing but very poor vision is transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers are also transformed from someone who manages feeding and sleep schedules to a constantly moving guide and safety inspector for a mobile, energetic child.

Figure 1.2

Figure 1.2 – A swaddled newborn. 5

Early Childhood

Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years and consists of the years which follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling. As a three to five-year-old, the child is busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is beginning to learn the workings of the physical world. This knowledge does not come quickly, however, and preschoolers may initially have interesting conceptions of size, time, space and distance such as fearing that they may go down the drain if they sit at the front of the bathtub or by demonstrating how long something will take by holding out their two index fingers several inches apart. A toddler’s fierce determination to do something may give way to a four-year-old’s sense of guilt for action that brings the disapproval of others.

Figure 1.3

Figure 1.3 – Two young children playing in the Singapore Botanic Gardens 6

Middle Childhood

The ages of six through eleven comprise middle childhood and much of what children experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of school. Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and by assessing one’s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self and others. Schools compare students and make these comparisons public through team sports, test scores, and other forms of recognition. Growth rates slow down and children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life. And children begin to learn about social relationships beyond the family through interaction with friends and fellow students.

Figure 1.4

Figure 1.4 – Two children running down the street in Carenage, Trinidad and Tobago 7

Adolescence

Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty. It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a sense of invincibility that puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting sexually transmitted infections that can have lifelong consequences. 8

Figure 1.5

Figure 1.5 – Two smiling teenage women. 9

There are some aspects of development that have been hotly debated. Let’s explore these.

Issues in Development

Nature and nurture.

Why are people the way they are? Are features such as height, weight, personality, being diabetic, etc. the result of heredity or environmental factors-or both? For decades, scholars have carried on the “nature/nurture” debate. For any particular feature, those on the side of Nature would argue that heredity plays the most important role in bringing about that feature. Those on the side of Nurture would argue that one’s environment is most significant in shaping the way we are. This debate continues in all aspects of human development, and most scholars agree that there is a constant interplay between the two forces. It is difficult to isolate the root of any single behavior as a result solely of nature or nurture.

Continuity versus Discontinuity

Is human development best characterized as a slow, gradual process, or is it best viewed as one of more abrupt change? The answer to that question often depends on which developmental theorist you ask and what topic is being studied. The theories of Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and Kohlberg are called stage theories. Stage theories or discontinuous development assume that developmental change often occurs in distinct stages that are qualitatively different from each other, and in a set, universal sequence. At each stage of development, children and adults have different qualities and characteristics. Thus, stage theorists assume development is more discontinuous. Others, such as the behaviorists, Vygotsky, and information processing theorists, assume development is a more slow and gradual process known as continuous development. For instance, they would see the adult as not possessing new skills, but more advanced skills that were already present in some form in the child. Brain development and environmental experiences contribute to the acquisition of more developed skills.

Figure 1.6

Figure 1.6 – The graph to the left shows three stages in the continuous growth of a tree. The graph to the right shows four distinct stages of development in the life cycle of a ladybug. 10

Active versus Passive

How much do you play a role in your own developmental path? Are you at the whim of your genetic inheritance or the environment that surrounds you? Some theorists see humans as playing a much more active role in their own development. Piaget, for instance believed that children actively explore their world and construct new ways of thinking to explain the things they experience. In contrast, many behaviorists view humans as being more passive in the developmental process. 11

How do we know so much about how we grow, develop, and learn? Let’s look at how that data is gathered through research

Research Methods

An important part of learning any science is having a basic knowledge of the techniques used in gathering information. The hallmark of scientific investigation is that of following a set of procedures designed to keep questioning or skepticism alive while describing, explaining, or testing any phenomenon. Some people are hesitant to trust academicians or researchers because they always seem to change their story. That, however, is exactly what science is all about; it involves continuously renewing our understanding of the subjects in question and an ongoing investigation of how and why events occur. Science is a vehicle for going on a never-ending journey. In the area of development, we have seen changes in recommendations for nutrition, in explanations of psychological states as people age, and in parenting advice. So think of learning about human development as a lifelong endeavor.

Take a moment to write down two things that you know about childhood. Now, how do you know? Chances are you know these things based on your own history (experiential reality) or based on what others have told you or cultural ideas (agreement reality) (Seccombe and Warner, 2004). There are several problems with personal inquiry. Read the following sentence aloud:

Paris in the

Are you sure that is what it said? Read it again:

If you read it differently the second time (adding the second “the”) you just experienced one of the problems with personal inquiry; that is, the tendency to see what we believe. Our assumptions very often guide our perceptions, consequently, when we believe something, we tend to see it even if it is not there. This problem may just be a result of cognitive ‘blinders’ or it may be part of a more conscious attempt to support our own views. Confirmation bias is the tendency to look for evidence that we are right and in so doing, we ignore contradictory evidence. Popper suggests that the distinction between that which is scientific and that which is unscientific is that science is falsifiable; scientific inquiry involves attempts to reject or refute a theory or set of assumptions (Thornton, 2005). Theory that cannot be falsified is not scientific. And much of what we do in personal inquiry involves drawing conclusions based on what we have personally experienced or validating our own experience by discussing what we think is true with others who share the same views.

Science offers a more systematic way to make comparisons guard against bias.

Scientific Methods

One method of scientific investigation involves the following steps:

  • Determining a research question
  • Reviewing previous studies addressing the topic in question (known as a literature review)
  • Determining a method of gathering information
  • Conducting the study
  • Interpreting results
  • Drawing conclusions; stating limitations of the study and suggestions for future research
  • Making your findings available to others (both to share information and to have your work scrutinized by others)

Your findings can then be used by others as they explore the area of interest and through this process a literature or knowledge base is established. This model of scientific investigation presents research as a linear process guided by a specific research question. And it typically involves quantifying or using statistics to understand and report what has been studied. Many academic journals publish reports on studies conducted in this manner.

Another model of research referred to as qualitative research may involve steps such as these:

  • Begin with a broad area of interest
  • Gain entrance into a group to be researched
  • Gather field notes about the setting, the people, the structure, the activities or other areas of interest
  • Ask open ended, broad “grand tour” types of questions when interviewing subjects
  • Modify research questions as study continues
  • Note patterns or consistencies
  • Explore new areas deemed important by the people being observed
  • Report findings

In this type of research, theoretical ideas are “grounded” in the experiences of the participants. The researcher is the student and the people in the setting are the teachers as they inform the researcher of their world (Glazer & Strauss, 1967). Researchers are to be aware of their own biases and assumptions, acknowledge them and bracket them in efforts to keep them from limiting accuracy in reporting. Sometimes qualitative studies are used initially to explore a topic and more quantitative studies are used to test or explain what was first described.

Let’s look more closely at some techniques, or research methods, used to describe, explain, or evaluate. Each of these designs has strengths and weaknesses and is sometimes used in combination with other designs within a single study.

Observational Studies

Observational studies involve watching and recording the actions of participants. This may take place in the natural setting, such as observing children at play at a park, or behind a one-way glass while children are at play in a laboratory playroom. The researcher may follow a checklist and record the frequency and duration of events (perhaps how many conflicts occur among 2-year-olds) or may observe and record as much as possible about an event (such as observing children in a classroom and capturing the details about the room design and what the children and teachers are doing and saying). In general, observational studies have the strength of allowing the researcher to see how people behave rather than relying on self-report. What people do and what they say they do are often very different. A major weakness of observational studies is that they do not allow the researcher to explain causal relationships. Yet, observational studies are useful and widely used when studying children. Children tend to change their behavior when they know they are being watched (known as the Hawthorne effect) and may not survey well.

Experiments

Experiments are designed to test hypotheses (or specific statements about the relationship between variables) in a controlled setting in efforts to explain how certain factors or events produce outcomes. A variable is anything that changes in value. Concepts are operationalized or transformed into variables in research, which means that the researcher must specify exactly what is going to be measured in the study.

Three conditions must be met in order to establish cause and effect. Experimental designs are useful in meeting these conditions.

The independent and dependent variables must be related. In other words, when one is altered, the other changes in response. (The independent variable is something altered or introduced by the researcher. The dependent variable is the outcome or the factor affected by the introduction of the independent variable. For example, if we are looking at the impact of exercise on stress levels, the independent variable would be exercise; the dependent variable would be stress.)

The cause must come before the effect. Experiments involve measuring subjects on the dependent variable before exposing them to the independent variable (establishing a baseline). So we would measure the subjects’ level of stress before introducing exercise and then again after the exercise to see if there has been a change in stress levels. (Observational and survey research does not always allow us to look at the timing of these events, which makes understanding causality problematic with these designs.)

The cause must be isolated. The researcher must ensure that no outside, perhaps unknown variables are actually causing the effect we see. The experimental design helps make this possible. In an experiment, we would make sure that our subjects’ diets were held constant throughout the exercise program. Otherwise, diet might really be creating the change in stress level rather than exercise.

A basic experimental design involves beginning with a sample (or subset of a population) and randomly assigning subjects to one of two groups: the experimental group or the control group. The experimental group is the group that is going to be exposed to an independent variable or condition the researcher is introducing as a potential cause of an event. The control group is going to be used for comparison and is going to have the same experience as the experimental group but will not be exposed to the independent variable. After exposing the experimental group to the independent variable, the two groups are measured again to see if a change has occurred. If so, we are in a better position to suggest that the independent variable caused the change in the dependent variable.

The major advantage of the experimental design is that of helping to establish cause and effect relationships. A disadvantage of this design is the difficulty of translating much of what happens in a laboratory setting into real life.

Case Studies

Case studies involve exploring a single case or situation in great detail. Information may be gathered with the use of observation, interviews, testing, or other methods to uncover as much as possible about a person or situation. Case studies are helpful when investigating unusual situations such as brain trauma or children reared in isolation. And they are often used by clinicians who conduct case studies as part of their normal practice when gathering information about a client or patient coming in for treatment. Case studies can be used to explore areas about which little is known and can provide rich detail about situations or conditions. However, the findings from case studies cannot be generalized or applied to larger populations; this is because cases are not randomly selected and no control group is used for comparison.

Figure 1.7

Figure 1.7 – Illustrated poster from a classroom describing a case study. 12

Surveys are familiar to most people because they are so widely used. Surveys enhance accessibility to subjects because they can be conducted in person, over the phone, through the mail, or online. A survey involves asking a standard set of questions to a group of subjects. In a highly structured survey, subjects are forced to choose from a response set such as “strongly disagree, disagree, undecided, agree, strongly agree”; or “0, 1-5, 6-10, etc.” This is known as Likert Scale . Surveys are commonly used by sociologists, marketing researchers, political scientists, therapists, and others to gather information on many independent and dependent variables in a relatively short period of time. Surveys typically yield surface information on a wide variety of factors, but may not allow for in-depth understanding of human behavior.

Of course, surveys can be designed in a number of ways. They may include forced choice questions and semi-structured questions in which the researcher allows the respondent to describe or give details about certain events. One of the most difficult aspects of designing a good survey is wording questions in an unbiased way and asking the right questions so that respondents can give a clear response rather than choosing “undecided” each time. Knowing that 30% of respondents are undecided is of little use! So a lot of time and effort should be placed on the construction of survey items. One of the benefits of having forced choice items is that each response is coded so that the results can be quickly entered and analyzed using statistical software. Analysis takes much longer when respondents give lengthy responses that must be analyzed in a different way. Surveys are useful in examining stated values, attitudes, opinions, and reporting on practices. However, they are based on self-report or what people say they do rather than on observation and this can limit accuracy.

Developmental Designs

Developmental designs are techniques used in developmental research (and other areas as well). These techniques try to examine how age, cohort, gender, and social class impact development.

Longitudinal Research

Longitudinal research involves beginning with a group of people who may be of the same age and background, and measuring them repeatedly over a long period of time. One of the benefits of this type of research is that people can be followed through time and be compared with them when they were younger.

Figure 1.8

Figure 1.8 – A longitudinal research design. 13

A problem with this type of research is that it is very expensive and subjects may drop out over time. The Perry Preschool Project which began in 1962 is an example of a longitudinal study that continues to provide data on children’s development.

Cross-sectional Research

Cross-sectional research involves beginning with a sample that represents a cross-section of the population. Respondents who vary in age, gender, ethnicity, and social class might be asked to complete a survey about television program preferences or attitudes toward the use of the Internet. The attitudes of males and females could then be compared, as could attitudes based on age. In cross-sectional research, respondents are measured only once.

Figure 1.9

Figure 1.9 – A cross-sectional research design. 14

This method is much less expensive than longitudinal research but does not allow the researcher to distinguish between the impact of age and the cohort effect. Different attitudes about the use of technology, for example, might not be altered by a person’s biological age as much as their life experiences as members of a cohort.

Sequential Research

Sequential research involves combining aspects of the previous two techniques; beginning with a cross-sectional sample and measuring them through time.

Figure 1.10

Figure 1.10 – A sequential research design. 15

This is the perfect model for looking at age, gender, social class, and ethnicity. But the drawbacks of high costs and attrition are here as well. 16

Table 1 .1 – Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Research Designs 17

Consent and Ethics in Research

Research should, as much as possible, be based on participants’ freely volunteered informed consent. For minors, this also requires consent from their legal guardians. This implies a responsibility to explain fully and meaningfully to both the child and their guardians what the research is about and how it will be disseminated. Participants and their legal guardians should be aware of the research purpose and procedures, their right to refuse to participate; the extent to which confidentiality will be maintained; the potential uses to which the data might be put; the foreseeable risks and expected benefits; and that participants have the right to discontinue at any time.

But consent alone does not absolve the responsibility of researchers to anticipate and guard against potential harmful consequences for participants. 18 It is critical that researchers protect all rights of the participants including confidentiality.

Child development is a fascinating field of study – but care must be taken to ensure that researchers use appropriate methods to examine infant and child behavior, use the correct experimental design to answer their questions, and be aware of the special challenges that are part-and-parcel of developmental research. Hopefully, this information helped you develop an understanding of these various issues and to be ready to think more critically about research questions that interest you. There are so many interesting questions that remain to be examined by future generations of developmental scientists – maybe you will make one of the next big discoveries! 19

Another really important framework to use when trying to understand children’s development are theories of development. Let’s explore what theories are and introduce you to some major theories in child development.

Developmental Theories

What is a theory.

Students sometimes feel intimidated by theory; even the phrase, “Now we are going to look at some theories…” is met with blank stares and other indications that the audience is now lost. But theories are valuable tools for understanding human behavior; in fact they are proposed explanations for the “how” and “whys” of development. Have you ever wondered, “Why is my 3 year old so inquisitive?” or “Why are some fifth graders rejected by their classmates?” Theories can help explain these and other occurrences. Developmental theories offer explanations about how we develop, why we change over time and the kinds of influences that impact development.

A theory guides and helps us interpret research findings as well. It provides the researcher with a blueprint or model to be used to help piece together various studies. Think of theories as guidelines much like directions that come with an appliance or other object that requires assembly. The instructions can help one piece together smaller parts more easily than if trial and error are used.

Theories can be developed using induction in which a number of single cases are observed and after patterns or similarities are noted, the theorist develops ideas based on these examples. Established theories are then tested through research; however, not all theories are equally suited to scientific investigation.  Some theories are difficult to test but are still useful in stimulating debate or providing concepts that have practical application. Keep in mind that theories are not facts; they are guidelines for investigation and practice, and they gain credibility through research that fails to disprove them. 20

Let’s take a look at some key theories in Child Development.

Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

We begin with the often controversial figure, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud has been a very influential figure in the area of development; his view of development and psychopathology dominated the field of psychiatry until the growth of behaviorism in the 1950s. His assumptions that personality forms during the first few years of life and that the ways in which parents or other caregivers interact with children have a long-lasting impact on children’s emotional states have guided parents, educators, clinicians, and policy-makers for many years. We have only recently begun to recognize that early childhood experiences do not always result in certain personality traits or emotional states. There is a growing body of literature addressing resilience in children who come from harsh backgrounds and yet develop without damaging emotional scars (O’Grady and Metz, 1987). Freud has stimulated an enormous amount of research and generated many ideas. Agreeing with Freud’s theory in its entirety is hardly necessary for appreciating the contribution he has made to the field of development.

Figure 1.11

Figure 1.11 – Sigmund Freud. 21

Freud’s theory of self suggests that there are three parts of the self.

The id is the part of the self that is inborn. It responds to biological urges without pause and is guided by the principle of pleasure: if it feels good, it is the thing to do. A newborn is all id. The newborn cries when hungry, defecates when the urge strikes.

The ego develops through interaction with others and is guided by logic or the reality principle. It has the ability to delay gratification. It knows that urges have to be managed. It mediates between the id and superego using logic and reality to calm the other parts of the self.

The superego represents society’s demands for its members. It is guided by a sense of guilt. Values, morals, and the conscience are all part of the superego.

The personality is thought to develop in response to the child’s ability to learn to manage biological urges. Parenting is important here. If the parent is either overly punitive or lax, the child may not progress to the next stage. Here is a brief introduction to Freud’s stages.

Table 1. 2 – Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory

Freud’s theory has been heavily criticized for several reasons. One is that it is very difficult to test scientifically. How can parenting in infancy be traced to personality in adulthood? Are there other variables that might better explain development? The theory is also considered to be sexist in suggesting that women who do not accept an inferior position in society are somehow psychologically flawed. Freud focuses on the darker side of human nature and suggests that much of what determines our actions is unknown to us. So why do we study Freud? As mentioned above, despite the criticisms, Freud’s assumptions about the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our psychological selves have found their way into child development, education, and parenting practices. Freud’s theory has heuristic value in providing a framework from which to elaborate and modify subsequent theories of development. Many later theories, particularly behaviorism and humanism, were challenges to Freud’s views. 22

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Now, let’s turn to a less controversial theorist, Erik Erikson. Erikson (1902-1994) suggested that our relationships and society’s expectations motivate much of our behavior in his theory of psychosocial development. Erikson was a student of Freud’s but emphasized the importance of the ego, or conscious thought, in determining our actions. In other words, he believed that we are not driven by unconscious urges. We know what motivates us and we consciously think about how to achieve our goals. He is considered the father of developmental psychology because his model gives us a guideline for the entire life span and suggests certain primary psychological and social concerns throughout life.

Figure 1.12

Figure 1.12 – Erik Erikson. 23

Erikson expanded on his Freud’s by emphasizing the importance of culture in parenting practices and motivations and adding three stages of adult development (Erikson, 1950; 1968). He believed that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life and the ego has greater importance in guiding our actions than does the id. We make conscious choices in life and these choices focus on meeting certain social and cultural needs rather than purely biological ones. Humans are motivated, for instance, by the need to feel that the world is a trustworthy place, that we are capable individuals, that we can make a contribution to society, and that we have lived a meaningful life. These are all psychosocial problems.

Erikson divided the lifespan into eight stages. In each stage, we have a major psychosocial task to accomplish or crisis to overcome.  Erikson believed that our personality continues to take shape throughout our lifespan as we face these challenges in living. Here is a brief overview of the eight stages:

Table 1. 3 – Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

These eight stages form a foundation for discussions on emotional and social development during the life span. Keep in mind, however, that these stages or crises can occur more than once. For instance, a person may struggle with a lack of trust beyond infancy under certain circumstances. Erikson’s theory has been criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is prerequisite for the next crisis of development. His theory also focuses on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all. For instance, the idea that adolescence is a time of searching for identity might translate well in the middle-class culture of the United States, but not as well in cultures where the transition into adulthood coincides with puberty through rites of passage and where adult roles offer fewer choices. 24

Behaviorism

While Freud and Erikson looked at what was going on in the mind, behaviorism rejected any reference to mind and viewed overt and observable behavior as the proper subject matter of psychology. Through the scientific study of behavior, it was hoped that laws of learning could be derived that would promote the prediction and control of behavior. 25

Ivan Pavlov

Ivan Pavlov (1880-1937) was a Russian physiologist interested in studying digestion. As he recorded the amount of salivation his laboratory dogs produced as they ate, he noticed that they actually began to salivate before the food arrived as the researcher walked down the hall and toward the cage. “This,” he thought, “is not natural!” One would expect a dog to automatically salivate when food hit their palate, but BEFORE the food comes? Of course, what had happened was . . . you tell me. That’s right! The dogs knew that the food was coming because they had learned to associate the footsteps with the food. The key word here is “learned”. A learned response is called a “conditioned” response.

Figure 1.13

Figure 1.13 – Ivan Pavlov. 26

Pavlov began to experiment with this concept of classical conditioning . He began to ring a bell, for instance, prior to introducing the food. Sure enough, after making this connection several times, the dogs could be made to salivate to the sound of a bell. Once the bell had become an event to which the dogs had learned to salivate, it was called a conditioned stimulus . The act of salivating to a bell was a response that had also been learned, now termed in Pavlov’s jargon, a conditioned response. Notice that the response, salivation, is the same whether it is conditioned or unconditioned (unlearned or natural). What changed is the stimulus to which the dog salivates. One is natural (unconditioned) and one is learned (conditioned).

Let’s think about how classical conditioning is used on us. One of the most widespread applications of classical conditioning principles was brought to us by the psychologist, John B. Watson.

John B. Watson

John B. Watson (1878-1958) believed that most of our fears and other emotional responses are classically conditioned. He had gained a good deal of popularity in the 1920s with his expert advice on parenting offered to the public.

Figure 1.14

Figure 1.14 – John B. Watson. 27

He tried to demonstrate the power of classical conditioning with his famous experiment with an 18 month old boy named “Little Albert”. Watson sat Albert down and introduced a variety of seemingly scary objects to him: a burning piece of newspaper, a white rat, etc. But Albert remained curious and reached for all of these things. Watson knew that one of our only inborn fears is the fear of loud noises so he proceeded to make a loud noise each time he introduced one of Albert’s favorites, a white rat. After hearing the loud noise several times paired with the rat, Albert soon came to fear the rat and began to cry when it was introduced. Watson filmed this experiment for posterity and used it to demonstrate that he could help parents achieve any outcomes they desired, if they would only follow his advice. Watson wrote columns in newspapers and in magazines and gained a lot of popularity among parents eager to apply science to household order.

Operant conditioning, on the other hand, looks at the way the consequences of a behavior increase or decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. So let’s look at this a bit more.

B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning

B. F. Skinner (1904-1990), who brought us the principles of operant conditioning, suggested that reinforcement is a more effective means of encouraging a behavior than is criticism or punishment. By focusing on strengthening desirable behavior, we have a greater impact than if we emphasize what is undesirable. Reinforcement is anything that an organism desires and is motivated to obtain.

Figure 1.15

Figure 1.15 – B. F. Skinner. 28

A reinforcer is something that encourages or promotes a behavior. Some things are natural rewards. They are considered intrinsic or primary because their value is easily understood. Think of what kinds of things babies or animals such as puppies find rewarding.

Extrinsic or secondary reinforcers are things that have a value not immediately understood. Their value is indirect. They can be traded in for what is ultimately desired.

The use of positive reinforcement involves adding something to a situation in order to encourage a behavior. For example, if I give a child a cookie for cleaning a room, the addition of the cookie makes cleaning more likely in the future. Think of ways in which you positively reinforce others.

Negative reinforcement occurs when taking something unpleasant away from a situation encourages behavior. For example, I have an alarm clock that makes a very unpleasant, loud sound when it goes off in the morning. As a result, I get up and turn it off. By removing the noise, I am reinforced for getting up. How do you negatively reinforce others?

Punishment is an effort to stop a behavior. It means to follow an action with something unpleasant or painful. Punishment is often less effective than reinforcement for several reasons. It doesn’t indicate the desired behavior, it may result in suppressing rather than stopping a behavior, (in other words, the person may not do what is being punished when you’re around, but may do it often when you leave), and a focus on punishment can result in not noticing when the person does well.

Not all behaviors are learned through association or reinforcement. Many of the things we do are learned by watching others. This is addressed in social learning theory.

Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura (1925-) is a leading contributor to social learning theory. He calls our attention to the ways in which many of our actions are not learned through conditioning; rather, they are learned by watching others (1977). Young children frequently learn behaviors through imitation

Figure 1.16

Figure 1.16 – Albert Bandura. 29

Sometimes, particularly when we do not know what else to do, we learn by modeling or copying the behavior of others. A kindergartner on his or her first day of school might eagerly look at how others are acting and try to act the same way to fit in more quickly. Adolescents struggling with their identity rely heavily on their peers to act as role-models. Sometimes we do things because we’ve seen it pay off for someone else. They were operantly conditioned, but we engage in the behavior because we hope it will pay off for us as well. This is referred to as vicarious reinforcement (Bandura, Ross and Ross, 1963).

Bandura (1986) suggests that there is interplay between the environment and the individual. We are not just the product of our surroundings, rather we influence our surroundings. Parents not only influence their child’s environment, perhaps intentionally through the use of reinforcement, etc., but children influence parents as well. Parents may respond differently with their first child than with their fourth. Perhaps they try to be the perfect parents with their firstborn, but by the time their last child comes along they have very different expectations both of themselves and their child. Our environment creates us and we create our environment. 30

Theories also explore cognitive development and how mental processes change over time.

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is one of the most influential cognitive theorists. Piaget was inspired to explore children’s ability to think and reason by watching his own children’s development. He was one of the first to recognize and map out the ways in which children’s thought differs from that of adults. His interest in this area began when he was asked to test the IQ of children and began to notice that there was a pattern in their wrong answers. He believed that children’s intellectual skills change over time through maturation. Children of differing ages interpret the world differently.

Figure 1.17

Figure 1.17 – Jean Piaget. 32

Piaget believed our desire to understand the world comes from a need for cognitive equilibrium . This is an agreement or balance between what we sense in the outside world and what we know in our minds. If we experience something that we cannot understand, we try to restore the balance by either changing our thoughts or by altering the experience to fit into what we do understand. Perhaps you meet someone who is very different from anyone you know. How do you make sense of this person? You might use them to establish a new category of people in your mind or you might think about how they are similar to someone else.

A schema or schemes are categories of knowledge. They are like mental boxes of concepts. A child has to learn many concepts. They may have a scheme for “under” and “soft” or “running” and “sour”. All of these are schema. Our efforts to understand the world around us lead us to develop new schema and to modify old ones.

One way to make sense of new experiences is to focus on how they are similar to what we already know. This is assimilation . So the person we meet who is very different may be understood as being “sort of like my brother” or “his voice sounds a lot like yours.” Or a new food may be assimilated when we determine that it tastes like chicken!

Another way to make sense of the world is to change our mind. We can make a cognitive accommodation to this new experience by adding new schema. This food is unlike anything I’ve tasted before. I now have a new category of foods that are bitter-sweet in flavor, for instance. This is  accommodation . Do you accommodate or assimilate more frequently? Children accommodate more frequently as they build new schema. Adults tend to look for similarity in their experience and assimilate. They may be less inclined to think “outside the box.”

Piaget suggested different ways of understanding that are associated with maturation. He divided this into four stages:

Table 1.4 – Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory

Piaget has been criticized for overemphasizing the role that physical maturation plays in cognitive development and in underestimating the role that culture and interaction (or experience) plays in cognitive development. Looking across cultures reveals considerable variation in what children are able to do at various ages. Piaget may have underestimated what children are capable of given the right circumstances. 33

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who wrote in the early 1900s but whose work was discovered in the United States in the 1960s but became more widely known in the 1980s. Vygotsky differed with Piaget in that he believed that a person not only has a set of abilities, but also a set of potential abilities that can be realized if given the proper guidance from others. His sociocultural theory emphasizes the importance of culture and interaction in the development of cognitive abilities. He believed that through guided participation known as scaffolding, with a teacher or capable peer, a child can learn cognitive skills within a certain range known as the zone of proximal development . 34 His belief was that development occurred first through children’s immediate social interactions, and then moved to the individual level as they began to internalize their learning. 35

Figure 1.18

Figure 1.18- Lev Vygotsky. 36

Have you ever taught a child to perform a task? Maybe it was brushing their teeth or preparing food. Chances are you spoke to them and described what you were doing while you demonstrated the skill and let them work along with you all through the process. You gave them assistance when they seemed to need it, but once they knew what to do-you stood back and let them go. This is scaffolding and can be seen demonstrated throughout the world. This approach to teaching has also been adopted by educators. Rather than assessing students on what they are doing, they should be understood in terms of what they are capable of doing with the proper guidance. You can see how Vygotsky would be very popular with modern day educators. 37

Comparing Piaget and Vygotsky

Vygotsky concentrated more on the child’s immediate social and cultural environment and his or her interactions with adults and peers. While Piaget saw the child as actively discovering the world through individual interactions with it, Vygotsky saw the child as more of an apprentice, learning through a social environment of others who had more experience and were sensitive to the child’s needs and abilities. 38

Like Vygotsky’s, Bronfenbrenner looked at the social influences on learning and development.

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) offers us one of the most comprehensive theories of human development. Bronfenbrenner studied Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and learning theorists and believed that all of those theories could be enhanced by adding the dimension of context. What is being taught and how society interprets situations depends on who is involved in the life of a child and on when and where a child lives.

Figure 1.19

Figure 1.19 – Urie Bronfenbrenner. 39

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model explains the direct and indirect influences on an individual’s development.

Table 1.5 – Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model

For example, in order to understand a student in math, we can’t simply look at that individual and what challenges they face directly with the subject. We have to look at the interactions that occur between teacher and child. Perhaps the teacher needs to make modifications as well. The teacher may be responding to regulations made by the school, such as new expectations for students in math or constraints on time that interfere with the teacher’s ability to instruct. These new demands may be a response to national efforts to promote math and science deemed important by political leaders in response to relations with other countries at a particular time in history.

Figure 1.20

Figure 1.20 – Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory. 40

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model challenges us to go beyond the individual if we want to understand human development and promote improvements. 41

In this chapter we looked at:

underlying principles of development

the five periods of development

three issues in development

Various methods of research

important theories that help us understand development

Next, we are going to be examining where we all started with conception, heredity, and prenatal development.

Child Growth and Development Copyright © by Jean Zaar is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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InBrief: The Science of Early Childhood Development

This brief is part of a series that summarizes essential scientific findings from Center publications.

Content in This Guide

Step 1: why is early childhood important.

  • : Brain Hero
  • : The Science of ECD (Video)
  • You Are Here: The Science of ECD (Text)

Step 2: How Does Early Child Development Happen?

  • : 3 Core Concepts in Early Development
  • : 8 Things to Remember about Child Development
  • : InBrief: The Science of Resilience

Step 3: What Can We Do to Support Child Development?

  • : From Best Practices to Breakthrough Impacts
  • : 3 Principles to Improve Outcomes

The science of early brain development can inform investments in early childhood. These basic concepts, established over decades of neuroscience and behavioral research, help illustrate why child development—particularly from birth to five years—is a foundation for a prosperous and sustainable society.

Brains are built over time, from the bottom up.

The basic architecture of the brain is constructed through an ongoing process that begins before birth and continues into adulthood. Early experiences affect the quality of that architecture by establishing either a sturdy or a fragile foundation for all of the learning, health and behavior that follow. In the first few years of life, more than 1 million new neural connections are formed every second . After this period of rapid proliferation, connections are reduced through a process called pruning, so that brain circuits become more efficient. Sensory pathways like those for basic vision and hearing are the first to develop, followed by early language skills and higher cognitive functions. Connections proliferate and prune in a prescribed order, with later, more complex brain circuits built upon earlier, simpler circuits.

In the proliferation and pruning process, simpler neural connections form first, followed by more complex circuits. The timing is genetic, but early experiences determine whether the circuits are strong or weak. Source: C.A. Nelson (2000). Credit: Center on the Developing Child

The interactive influences of genes and experience shape the developing brain.

Scientists now know a major ingredient in this developmental process is the “ serve and return ” relationship between children and their parents and other caregivers in the family or community. Young children naturally reach out for interaction through babbling, facial expressions, and gestures, and adults respond with the same kind of vocalizing and gesturing back at them. In the absence of such responses—or if the responses are unreliable or inappropriate—the brain’s architecture does not form as expected, which can lead to disparities in learning and behavior.

The brain’s capacity for change decreases with age.

The brain is most flexible, or “plastic,” early in life to accommodate a wide range of environments and interactions, but as the maturing brain becomes more specialized to assume more complex functions, it is less capable of reorganizing and adapting to new or unexpected challenges. For example, by the first year, the parts of the brain that differentiate sound are becoming specialized to the language the baby has been exposed to; at the same time, the brain is already starting to lose the ability to recognize different sounds found in other languages. Although the “windows” for language learning and other skills remain open, these brain circuits become increasingly difficult to alter over time. Early plasticity means it’s easier and more effective to influence a baby’s developing brain architecture than to rewire parts of its circuitry in the adult years.

Cognitive, emotional, and social capacities are inextricably intertwined throughout the life course.

The brain is a highly interrelated organ, and its multiple functions operate in a richly coordinated fashion. Emotional well-being and social competence provide a strong foundation for emerging cognitive abilities, and together they are the bricks and mortar that comprise the foundation of human development. The emotional and physical health, social skills, and cognitive-linguistic capacities that emerge in the early years are all important prerequisites for success in school and later in the workplace and community.

Toxic stress damages developing brain architecture, which can lead to lifelong problems in learning, behavior, and physical and mental health.

Scientists now know that chronic, unrelenting stress in early childhood, caused by extreme poverty, repeated abuse, or severe maternal depression, for example, can be toxic to the developing brain. While positive stress (moderate, short-lived physiological responses to uncomfortable experiences) is an important and necessary aspect of healthy development, toxic stress is the strong, unrelieved activation of the body’s stress management system. In the absence of the buffering protection of adult support, toxic stress becomes built into the body by processes that shape the architecture of the developing brain.

Brains subjected to toxic stress have underdeveloped neural connections in areas of the brain most important for successful learning and behavior in school and the workplace. Source: Radley et al (2004); Bock et al (2005). Credit: Center on the Developing Child.

Policy Implications

  • The basic principles of neuroscience indicate that early preventive intervention will be more efficient and produce more favorable outcomes than remediation later in life.
  • A balanced approach to emotional, social, cognitive, and language development will best prepare all children for success in school and later in the workplace and community.
  • Supportive relationships and positive learning experiences begin at home but can also be provided through a range of services with proven effectiveness factors. Babies’ brains require stable, caring, interactive relationships with adults — any way or any place they can be provided will benefit healthy brain development.
  • Science clearly demonstrates that, in situations where toxic stress is likely, intervening as early as possible is critical to achieving the best outcomes. For children experiencing toxic stress, specialized early interventions are needed to target the cause of the stress and protect the child from its consequences.

Suggested citation: Center on the Developing Child (2007). The Science of Early Childhood Development (InBrief). Retrieved from www.developingchild.harvard.edu .

Related Topics: toxic stress , brain architecture , serve and return

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Committee on the Science of Children Birth to Age 8: Deepening and Broadening the Foundation for Success; Board on Children, Youth, and Families; Institute of Medicine; National Research Council; Allen LR, Kelly BB, editors. Transforming the Workforce for Children Birth Through Age 8: A Unifying Foundation. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2015 Jul 23.

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Transforming the Workforce for Children Birth Through Age 8: A Unifying Foundation.

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4 Child Development and Early Learning

The domains of child development and early learning are discussed in different terms and categorized in different ways in the various fields and disciplines that are involved in research, practice, and policy related to children from birth through age 8. To organize the discussion in this report, the committee elected to use the approach and overarching terms depicted in Figure 4-1 . The committee does not intend to present this as a single best set of terms or a single best categorical organization. Indeed, it is essential to recognize that the domains shown in Figure 4-1 are not easily separable and that a case can be made for multiple different categorizations. For example, different disciplines and researchers have categorized different general cognitive processes under the categorical term “executive function.” General cognitive processes also relate to learning competencies such as persistence and engagement. Similarly, self-regulation has both cognitive and emotional dimensions. It is sometimes categorized as a part of executive function, as a part of socioemotional competence, or as a part of learning competencies. Attention and memory could be considered a part of general cognitive processes, as embedded within executive function, or linked to learning competencies related to persistence. Mental health is closely linked to socioemotional competence, but is also inseparable from health.

Report's organizational approach for the domains of child development and early learning.

The challenge of cleanly separating these concepts highlights a key attribute of all of these domains, which is that they do not develop or operate in isolation. Each enables and mutually supports learning and development in the others. Therefore, the importance of the interactions among the domains is emphasized throughout this chapter. For example, socioemotional competence is important for self-regulation, as are certain cognitive skills, and both emotional and cognitive self-regulation are important for children to be able to exercise learning competencies. Similarly, although certain skills and concept knowledge are distinct to developing proficiency in particular subject areas, learning in these subject areas also both requires and supports general cognitive skills such as reasoning and attention, as well as learning competencies and socioemotional competence. In an overarching example of interactions, a child's security both physically and in relationships creates the context in which learning is most achievable across all of the domains.

It is less important that all fields of research, practice, and policy adhere to the exact same categorizations, and more important that all conduct their work in a way that is cognizant and inclusive of all the elements that contribute to child development and early learning, and that all fields recognize that they are interactive and mutually reinforcing rather than hierarchical. This point foreshadows a theme that is addressed more fully in subsequent chapters. Because different fields and sectors may not use the same categorizations and vocabulary for these domains and skills, developing practices and policies that support more consistent and continuous development and early learning across birth through age 8 will require a concerted effort to communicate clearly and come to a mutual understanding of the goals for children. To communicate across fields and between research and practice communities requires being aware of the different categorical frameworks and terms that are used and being able to discuss the various concepts and content—and their implications—with clarity across those different frameworks. Practitioners and policy makers will be aided in achieving greater precision and clarity in their actions and decisions if those conducting and communicating future research keep this challenge in mind across domains, especially in those cases in which the taxonomy is most variable (e.g., self-regulation, executive function, general learning competencies).

With these caveats in mind, the remainder of this chapter addresses in turn the domains of child development and early learning depicted in Figure 4-1 : cognitive development, including learning of specific subjects; general learning competencies; socioemotional development; and physical development and health. The final section examines a key overarching issue: the effects on child development and early learning of the stress and adversity that is also an important theme in the discussion of the interaction between biology and environment in Chapter 3 .

  • COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

This section highlights what is known about cognitive development in young children. It begins with key concepts from research viewpoints that have contributed to recent advances in understanding of the developing mind, and then presents the implications of this knowledge for early care and education settings. The following section addresses the learning of specific subjects, with a focus on language and mathematics.

Studies of early cognitive development have led researchers to understand the developing mind as astonishingly competent, active, and insightful from a very early age. For example, infants engage in an intuitive analysis of the statistical regularities in the speech sounds they hear en route to constructing language ( Saffran, 2003 ). Infants and toddlers derive implicit theories to explain the actions of objects and the behavior of people; these theories form the foundation for causal learning and more sophisticated understanding of the physical and social worlds. Infants and young children also are keenly responsive to what they can learn from the actions and words directed to them by other people. This capacity for joint attention may be the foundation that enables humans to benefit from culturally transmitted knowledge ( Tomasello et al., 2005 ). Infants respond to cues conveying the communicative intentions of an adult (such as eye contact and infant-directed speech) and tune in to what the adult is referring to and what can be learned about it. This “natural pedagogy” ( Csibra, 2010 ; Csibra and Gergely, 2009 ) becomes more sophisticated in the sensitivity of preschoolers to implicit pedagogical guides in adult speech directed to them ( Butler and Markman, 2012a , b , 2014 ). Young children rely so much on what they learn from others that they become astute, by the preschool years, in distinguishing adult speakers who are likely to provide them with reliable information from those who are not ( Harris, 2012 ; Jaswal, 2010 ; Koenig and Doebel, 2013 ). This connection of relationships and social interactions to cognitive development is consistent with how the brain develops and how the mind grows, and is a theme throughout this chapter.

Much of what current research shows is going on in young children's minds is not transparent in their behavior. Infants and young children may not show what they know because of competing demands on their attention, limitations in what they can do, and immature self-regulation. This is one of the reasons why developmental scientists use carefully designed experiments for elucidating what young children know and understand about the world. By designing research procedures that eliminate competing distractions and rely on simple responses (such as looking time and expressions of surprise), researchers seek to uncover cognitive processes that might otherwise be more difficult to see. Evidence derived in this experimental manner, such as the examples in the sections that follow, can be helpful in explaining young children's rapid growth in language learning, imitation, problem solving, and other skills.

Implicit Theories

One of the most important discoveries about the developing mind is how early and significantly very young children, even starting in infancy, are uniting disparate observations or discrete facts into coherent conceptual systems ( Carey, 2009 ; Gopnik and Wellman, 2012 ; Spelke and Kinzler, 2007 ). From very early on, children are not simply passive observers, registering the superficial appearance of things. Rather, they are building explanatory systems—implicit theories—that organize their knowledge. Such implicit theories contain causal principles and causal relations; these theories enable children to predict, explain, and reason about relevant phenomena and, in some cases, intervene to change them. As early as the first year of life, babies are developing incipient theories about how the world of people, other living things, objects, and numbers operates. It is important to point out that these foundational theories are not simply isolated forms of knowledge, but play a profound role in children's everyday lives and subsequent education.

One major example of an implicit theory that is already developing as early as infancy is “theory of mind,” which refers to the conceptual framework people use to reason about the mental lives of others as well as themselves. This example is discussed in detail below. Some additional illustrative examples of the development of implicit theories are provided in Box 4-1 .

Examples of the Development of Implicit Theories. Even babies hold some fundamental principles about how objects move about in space and time (Baillargeon et al., 2009). For example, babies are surprised (as measured by their increased looking time) if (more...)

Theory of Mind

People intuitively understand others' actions as motivated by desires, goals, feelings, intentions, thoughts, and other mental states, and we understand how these mental states affect one another (for example, an unfulfilled desire can evoke negative feelings and a motivation to continue trying to achieve the goal). One remarkable discovery of research on young children is that they are developing their own intuitive “map” of mental processes like these from very early in life ( Baillargeon et al., 2010 ; Saxe, 2013 ; Wellman and Woolley, 1990 ). Children's developing theory of mind transforms how they respond to people and what they learn from them. Infants and young children are beginning to understand what goes on in people's minds, and how others' feelings and thoughts are similar to and different from their own.

Infants first have a relatively simple theory of mind. They are aware of some basic characteristics: what people are looking at is a sign of what they are paying attention to; people act intentionally and are goal directed; people have positive and negative feelings in response to things around them; and people have different perceptions, goals, and feelings. Children add to this mental map as their awareness grows. From infancy on, developing theory of mind permeates everyday social interactions—affecting what and how children learn, how they react to and interact with other people, how they assess the fairness of an action, and how they evaluate themselves.

One-year-olds, for example, will look in their mother's direction when faced with someone or something unfamiliar to “read” mother's expression and determine whether this is a dangerous or benign unfamiliarity. Infants also detect when an adult makes eye contact, speaks in an infant-directed manner (such as using higher pitch and melodic intonations), and responds contingently to the infant's behavior. Under these circumstances, infants are especially attentive to what the adult says and does, thus devoting special attention to social situations in which the adult's intentions are likely to represent learning opportunities.

Other examples also illustrate how a developing theory of mind underlies children's emerging understanding of the intentions of others. Take imitation, for example. It is well established that babies and young children imitate the actions of others. Children as young as 14 to 18 months are often imitating not the literal observed action but the action they thought the actor intended—the goal or the rationale behind the action ( Gergely et al., 2002 ; Meltzoff, 1995 ). Word learning is another example in which babies' reasoning based on theory of mind plays a crucial role. By at least 15 months old, when babies hear an adult label an object, they take the speaker's intent into account by checking the speaker's focus of attention and deciding whether they think the adult indicated the object intentionally. Only when babies have evidence that the speaker intended to refer to a particular object with a label will they learn that word ( Baldwin, 1991 ; Baldwin and Moses, 2001 ; Baldwin and Tomasello, 1998 ).

Babies also can perceive the unfulfilled goals of others and intervene to help them; this is called “shared intentionality.” Babies as young as 14 months old who witness an adult struggling to reach for an object will interrupt their play to crawl over and hand the object to the adult ( Warneken and Tomasello, 2007 ). By the time they are 18 months old, shared intentionality enables toddlers to act helpfully in a variety of situations; for example, they pick up dropped objects for adults who indicate that they need assistance (but not for adults who dropped the object intentionally) ( Warneken and Tomasello, 2006 ). Developing an understanding of others' goals and preferences and how to facilitate them affects how young children interpret the behavior of people they observe and provides a basis for developing a sense of helpful versus undesirable human activity that is a foundation for later development of moral understanding (cf. Bloom, 2013 ; Hamlin et al., 2007 ; Thompson, 2012 , 2015 ).

Developing Implicit Theories: Implications for Adults

The research on the development of implicit theories in children has important implications for how adults work with and educate young children. Failure to recognize the extent to which they are construing information in terms of their lay theories can result in educational strategies that oversimplify material for children. Educational materials guided by the assumption that young children are “concrete” thinkers—that they cannot deal with abstraction or reason hypothetically—leads educators to focus on simple, descriptive activities that can deprive children of opportunities to advance their conceptual frameworks. Designing effective materials in a given domain or subject matter requires knowing what implicit theories children hold, what core causal principles they use, and what misconceptions and gaps in knowledge they have, and then using empirically validated steps to help lead them to a more accurate, more advanced conceptual framework.

Statistical Learning

Statistical learning refers to the range of ways in which children, even babies, are implicitly sensitive to the statistical regularities in their environment, although they are not explicitly learning or applying statistics. Like the development of implicit theories, this concept of statistical learning counters the possible misconception of babies as passive learners and bears on the vital importance of their having opportunities to observe and interact with the environment. Several examples of statistical learning are provided in Box 4-2 .

Examples of Statistical Learning. Infants can use information about the statistics of syllables in the speech they hear to help them parse words. How do we know from hearing prettybaby that baby is more likely to be a word than tyba ? One way is that the (more...)

Understanding Causal Inference

Children's intuitive understanding of causal inference has long been recognized as a fundamental component of conceptual development. Young children, although not explicitly or consciously experimenting with causality, can experience observations and learning that allow them to conclude that a particular variable X causes (or prevents) an effect Y. Recent advances in the field have documented the ways young children can implicitly use the statistics of how events covary to infer causal relations, make predictions, generate explanations, guide their exploration, and enable them to intervene in the environment. The understanding of causal inference also provides an example of how different cognitive abilities—such as a sensitivity to statistical regularities and the development of implicit theories based on observation and learning (discussed in the two preceding sections and Box 4-2 )—interact with and can mutually support each other. There is now a substantial literature on young children's implicit ability to use what they observe in different conditions to understand the relations between variables. Several examples of young children developing the ability to understand causal inference are provided in Box 4-3 .

Examples of Understanding Causal Inference. One of the first studies of children's understanding of causal inference showed that children can rule out one variable and isolate another (Gopnik et al., 2001). Preschool children were presented with a machine (more...)

Sensitivity to Teaching Cues

Csibra and Gergely (2009) argue that humans are equipped with a capacity to realize when someone is communicating something for their benefit and that they construe that information differently than when they merely witness it. As noted previously in the discussion of developing theory of mind, children as early as infancy devote special attention to social situations that are likely to represent learning opportunities because adults communicate that intention. Information learned in such communicative contexts is treated as more generalizable and robust than that learned in a noncommunicative context.

In one study, for example, 9-month-old babies saw an adult either reach for an object (a noncommunicative act) or point to an object (a communicative act). The entire display was then screened from view, and after a brief delay, the curtains were opened, and babies saw either the same object in a new location or a new object in the same location. The short delay imposed a memory requirement, and for babies this young, encoding both the location and the identity of the object taxes their memory. The location of the object will typically be more salient and memorable to babies than the object's properties, but the prediction of this study was that babies who saw the adult point to the object would construe the pointing as a communicative act—“this adult is showing me something”—and would thus be more likely to encode the properties as opposed to the location of the object. Babies' looking times served as a measure of their surprise at or interest in an unexpected event. As predicted, babies appeared to encode different aspects of the event in the different conditions. When they had previously witnessed the adult reaching for the object, they were surprised when the object was in a new location but showed no renewed interest when there was a different object in the old location. In contrast, when babies first saw an adult point to the object, they were surprised when a new object appeared in the old location but not when the old object had changed locations ( Yoon et al., 2008 ).

Infants' Sensitivity to Teaching Cues: Implications for Adults

Babies have the capacity to realize when someone is communicating something for their benefit and therefore to construe information differently than when they merely witness it. When adults use face-to-face contact, call a baby's name, and point for the baby's benefit, these signals lead babies to recognize that someone is teaching them something, and this awareness can affect how and what they learn.

The significance of eye contact and other communication cues also is evident in research on whether, how, and when young children learn from video and other forms of digital media. Experiments conducted with 24-month-olds, for example, revealed that they can learn from a person on a video screen if that person is communicating with them through a webcam-like environment, but they showed no evidence of learning from a prerecorded video of that person. The webcam environment included social cues, such as back-and-forth conversation and other forms of social contact that are not possible in prerecorded video. Other studies found that toddlers learned verbs better during Skype video chats than during prerecorded video chats that did not allow for authentic eye contact or back-and-forth interaction ( Roseberry et al., 2014 ; Troseth et al., 2006 ). (See also Chapter 6 for more on technology and learning.)

The benefits of communicative pedagogical contexts for the conceptual development of preschool children also have been investigated. In one set of studies, 4-year-old children were exposed to a novel object's function either by seeing an adult deliberately use the object or by seeing the adult deliberately use the object after maintaining eye contact with the child and saying “watch this.” In both conditions, children noticed the object's property and attempted to elicit it from other similar objects. But when those objects were doctored to be nonfunctional, the children in the nonpedagogical condition quickly abandoned their attempts to elicit the property and played with the objects in some other way. Children who saw the same evidence but with direct communication for their benefit persisted in trying to elicit the property from other objects ( Butler and Markman, 2012a , b ). In other words, children's conviction that other similar objects should have the same unforeseen property was bolstered by their belief that the adult was performing the function for their benefit. Moreover the intentional (but nonpedagogical) condition versus the pedagogical condition produced strikingly different conceptions of the function ( Butler and Markman, 2014 ). Four- and 5-year-old children witnessed an object's function and were then given a set of objects to play with. Some objects were identical in appearance to the first object, while some differed in color (in one study) or shape (in another). Half of the objects of each color (or shape) had the unforeseen property, and half did not. Children were told they could play with the objects for a while and then should put them away in their appropriate boxes when done. The goal was to see whether children would sort the objects by the salient perceptual property (color or shape) or by function. Children in the pedagogical condition viewed the function as definitive and classified the objects by systematically testing each to see whether it had the function, while children in the nonpedagogical condition sorted by the salient color or shape. Thus, identical evidence is construed differently when children believe it has been produced for their benefit.

Effects of Adult Language on Cognition

Understanding the power of language is important for people who interact with children. Simple labels can help children unify disparate-looking things into coherent categories; thus labeling is a powerful way to foster conceptual development. Labels also can reify categories or concepts in ways that may or may not be intended. For example, frequently hearing “boys and girls” line up for recess, quiet down, etc. implicitly reinforces gender as an important dimension, compared with saying “children.” Box 4-4 presents examples of linguistic distinctions that affect children's construction of conceptual systems.

Examples of the Effects of Adult Language on Cognition. Some kinds of categories—two round balls, for example—are fairly easy to form, such that even babies treat the objects as similar. But many objects that adults view as members of (more...)

Effects of Language Used by Adults on Children's Cognitive Development: Implications for Adults

Awareness of the benefits and pitfalls of the language used by adults is important for people who interact with children. The language used by adults affects cognitive growth and learning in children in many subtle ways. Labeling is a powerful way to foster conceptual development. Simple labels can help children unify disparate things into coherent categories, but can also have the unintended consequence of reinforcing categories or concepts that are not desirable.

Conclusions About Cognitive Development and Early Learning Learning begins prenatally, and children are not only “ready to learn” but already actively learning from the time they are born. From birth, children's minds are active and inquisitive, and early thinking is insightful and complex. Many of the foundations of sophisticated forms of learning, including those important to academic success, are established in the earliest years of life. Development and early learning can be supported continuously as a child develops, and early knowledge and skills inform and influence future learning. When adults understand how the mind develops, what progress children make in their cognitive abilities, and how active inquiry and learning are children's natural inclination, they can foster cognitive growth by supporting children's active engagement with new experiences and providing developmentally appropriate stimulation of new learning through responsive, secure, and sustained caregiving relationships.

Implications for Care and Education Settings and Practitioners

The research findings on cognitive development in young children summarized above reflect an evolving understanding of how the mind develops during the early years and should be part of the core knowledge that influences how care and education professionals support young children's learning, as discussed in Chapter 7 . Many of these concepts describe cognitive processes that are implicit. By contrast with the explicit knowledge that older children and adults can put into words, implicit knowledge is tacit or nonconscious understanding that cannot readily be consciously described (see, e.g., Mandler, 2004 ). Examples of implicit knowledge in very young children include many of the early achievements discussed above, such as their implicit theories of living things and of the human mind and their nonconscious awareness of the statistical frequency of the associations among speech sounds in the language they are hearing. Infants' and young children's “statistical learning” does not mean that they can count, nor are their “implicit theories” consciously worked out. Not all early learning is implicit, of course. Very young children are taking significant strides in their explicit knowledge of language, the functioning of objects, and the characteristics of people and animals in the world around them. Thus early learning occurs on two levels: the growth of knowledge that is visible and apparent, and the growth of implicit understanding that is sometimes more difficult to observe.

This distinction between implicit and explicit learning can be confusing to early childhood practitioners (and parents), who often do not observe or recognize evidence for the sophisticated implicit learning—or even the explicit learning—taking place in the young children in their care. Many of the astonishingly competent, active, and insightful things that research on early cognitive development shows are going on in young children's minds are not transparent in their behavior. Instead, toddlers and young children seem highly distractable, emotional, and not very capable of managing their impulses. All of these observations about young children are true, but at the same time, their astonishing growth in language skills, their very different ways of interacting with objects and living things, and their efforts to share attention (such as through pointing) or goals (such as through helping) with an adult suggest that the cognitive achievements demonstrated in experimental settings have relevance to their everyday behavior.

This point is especially important because the cognitive abilities of young children are so easily underestimated. In the past, for example, the prevalent belief that infants lack conceptual knowledge meant that parents and practitioners missed opportunities to explore with them cause and effect, number, or symbolic play. Similarly, the view that young children are egocentric caused many adults to conclude that there was little benefit to talking about people's feelings until children were older—this despite the fact that most people could see how attentive young children were to others' emotions and how curious about their causes.

In light of these observations, how do early educators contribute to the cognitive growth of children in their first 3 years? One way is by providing appropriate support for the learning that is occurring in these very young children (see, e.g., Copple et al., 2013 ). Using an abundance of child-directed language during social interaction, playing counting games (e.g., while stacking blocks), putting into words what a classroom pet can do or why somebody looks sad, exploring together what happens when objects collide, engaging in imitative play and categorization (sorting) games—these and other shared activities can be cognitively provocative as long as they remain within the young child's capacities for interest and attention. They also build on understandings that young children are implicitly developing related to language; number; object characteristics; and implicit theories of animate and inanimate objects, physical causality, and people's minds. The purpose of these and other activities is not just to provide young children with cognitive stimulation, but also to embed that stimulation in social interaction that provokes young children's interest, elicits their curiosity, and provides an emotional context that enables them to focus their thinking on new discoveries. The central and consistent feature of all these activities is the young child's shared activity with an adult who thoughtfully capitalizes on his or her interests to provoke cognitive growth. The implications for instructional practices and curricula for educators working with infants and toddlers are discussed further in Chapter 6 .

Another way that educators contribute to the cognitive growth of infants and toddlers is through the emotional support they provide ( Jamison et al., 2014 ). Emotional support is afforded by the educator's responsiveness to young children's interests and needs (including each child's individual temperament), the educator's development of warm relationships with children, and the educator's accessibility to help when young children are exploring on their own or interacting with other children ( Thompson, 2006 ). Emotional support of this kind is important not only as a positive accompaniment to the task of learning but also as an essential prerequisite to the cognitive and attentional engagement necessary for young children to benefit from learning opportunities. Because early capacities to self-regulate emotion are so limited, a young child's frustration or distress can easily derail cognitive engagement in new discoveries, and children can lose focus because their attentional self-regulatory skills are comparably limited. An educator's emotional support can help keep young children focused and persistent, and can also increase the likelihood that early learning experiences will yield successful outcomes. Moreover, the secure attachments that young children develop with educators contribute to an expectation of adult support that enables young children to approach learning opportunities more positively and confidently. Emotional support and socioemotional development are discussed further later in this chapter.

The characteristics of early learning call for specific curricular approaches and thoughtful professional learning for educators, but it is also true that less formal opportunities to stimulate early cognitive growth emerge naturally in children's everyday interactions with a responsive adult. Consider, for example, a parent or other caregiver interacting with a 1-year-old over a shape-sorting toy. As they together are choosing shapes of different colors and the child is placing them in the appropriate (or inappropriate) cutout in the bin, the adult can accompany this task with language that describes what they are doing and why, and narrates the child's experiences of puzzlement, experimentation, and accomplishment. The adult may also be using number words to count the blocks as they are deposited. The baby's attention is focused by the constellation of adult behavior—infant-directed language, eye contact, and responsiveness—that signals the adult's teaching, and this “pedagogical orientation” helps focus the young child's attention and involvement. The back-and-forth interaction of child and adult activity provides stimulus for the baby's developing awareness of the adult's thinking (e.g., she looks at each block before commenting on it or acting intentionally on it) and use of language (e.g., colors are identified for each block, and generic language is used to describe blocks in general). In this interaction, moreover, the baby is developing both expectations for what this adult is like—safe, positive, responsive—and skills for social interaction (such as turn taking). Although these qualities and the learning derived from them are natural accompaniments to child-focused responsive social interaction with an adult caregiver, the caregiver's awareness of the child's cognitive growth at this time contributes significantly to the adult's ability to intentionally support new discovery and learning.

As children further develop cognitively as preschoolers, their growth calls for both similar and different behavior by the adults who work with them. While the educator's emotional support and responsiveness remain important, children from age 3 to 5 years become different kinds of thinkers than they were as infants and toddlers ( NRC, 2001 ). First, they are more consciously aware of their knowledge—much more of their understanding is now explicit. This means they are more capable of deliberately enlisting what they know into new learning situations, although they are not yet as competent or strategic in doing so as they will be in the primary grades. When faced with a problem or asked a question, they are more capable of offering an answer based on what they know, even when their knowledge is limited. Second, preschoolers are more competent in learning from their deliberate efforts to do so, such as trial-and-error or informal experimentation. While their success in this regard pales by comparison with the more strategic efforts of a grade-schooler, their “let's find out” approach to new challenges reflects their greater behavioral and mental competence in figuring things out. Third, preschoolers also are intuitive and experiential, learning by doing rather than figuring things out “in the head.” This makes shared activities with educators and peers potent opportunities for cognitive growth.

Nonetheless, the potential to underestimate the cognitive abilities of young children persists in the preschool and kindergarten years. In one study, for example, children's actual performance was six to eight times what was estimated by their own preschool teachers and other experts in consulting, teacher education, educational research, and educational development ( Claessens et al., 2014 ; Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, 1996 ). Such underestimation represents a lost opportunity that can hinder children's progress. A study in kindergarten revealed that teachers spent most of their time in basic content that children already knew, yet the children benefited more from advanced reading and mathematics content ( Claessens et al., 2014 )—an issue discussed in depth in Chapter 6 . Unfortunately, when care and education professionals underestimate children's abilities to understand and learn subject-matter content, the negative impact is greatest on those with the fewest prior learning experiences ( Bennett et al., 1984 ; Clements and Sarama, 2014 ).

Conversely, when educators practice in a way that is cognizant of the cognitive progress of children at this age, they can more deliberately enlist the preschool child's existing knowledge and skills into new learning situations. One example is interactive storybook reading, in which children describe the pictures and label their elements while the adult and child ask and answer questions of each other about the narrative. Language and literacy skills also are fostered at this age by the adult's use of varied vocabulary in interaction with the child, as well as by extending conversation on a single topic (rather than frequently switching topics), asking open-ended questions of the child, and initiating conversation related to the child's experiences and interests ( Dickinson, 2003 ; Dickinson and Porche, 2011 ; Dickinson and Tabors, 2001 ). In each case, dialogic conversation about text or experience draws on while also extending children's prior knowledge and language skills. Language and literacy skills are discussed further in a subsequent section of this chapter, as well as in Chapter 6 .

Another implication of these cognitive changes is that educators can engage preschool children's intentional activity in new learning opportunities. Children's interest in learning by doing is naturally suited to experimental inquiry related to science or other kinds of inquiry-based learning involving hypothesis and testing, especially in light of the implicit theories of living things and physical causality that children bring to such inquiry ( Samarapungavan et al., 2011 ). In a similar manner, board games can provide a basis for learning and extending number concepts. In several experimental demonstrations, when preschool children played number board games specifically designed to foster their mental representations of numerical quantities, they showed improvements in number line estimates, count-on skill, numerical identification, and other important quantitative concepts ( Laski and Siegler, 2014 ).

Other research has shown that instructional strategies that promote higher-level thinking, creativity, and even abstract understanding, such as talking about ideas or about future events, is associated with greater cognitive achievement by preschool-age children (e.g., Diamond et al., 2013 ; Mashburn et al., 2008 ). For example, when educators point out how cardinal numbers can be used to describe diverse sets of elements (four blocks, four children, 4 o'clock), it helps them generalize an abstract concept (“fourness”) that describes a set rather than the characteristics of each element alone. These activities also can be integrated into other instructional practices during a typical day.

Another implication of the changes in young children's thinking during the preschool years concerns the motivational features of early learning. Preschool-age children are developing a sense of themselves and their competencies, including their academic skills ( Marsh et al., 1998 , 2002 ). Their beliefs about their abilities in reading, counting, vocabulary, number games, and other academic competencies derive from several sources, including spontaneous social comparison with other children and feedback from teachers (and parents) concerning their achievement and the reasons they have done well or poorly. These beliefs influence, in turn, children's self-confidence, persistence, intrinsic motivation to succeed, and other characteristics that may be described as learning skills (and are discussed more extensively later in this chapter). Consequently, how teachers provide performance feedback to young children and support for their self-confidence in learning situations also is an important predictor of children's academic success ( Hamre, 2014 ).

In the early elementary years, children's cognitive processes develop further, which accordingly influences the strategies for educators in early elementary classrooms. Primary grade children are using more complex vocabulary and grammar. They are growing in their ability to make mental representations, but they still have difficulty grasping abstract concepts without the aid of real-life references and materials ( Tomlinson, 2014 ). This is a critical time for children to develop confidence in all areas of life. Children at this age show more independence from parents and family, while friendship, being liked and accepted by peers, becomes more important. Being in school most of the day means greater contact with a larger world, and children begin to develop a greater understanding of their place in that world ( CDC, 2014 ).

Children's growing ability to self-regulate their emotions also is evident in this period (discussed more extensively later in this chapter). Children understand their own feelings more and more, and learn better ways to describe experiences and express thoughts and feelings. They better understand the consequences of their actions, and their focus on concern for others grows. They are very observant, are willing to play cooperatively and work in teams, and can resolve some conflicts without seeking adult intervention ( CDC, 2014 ). Children also come to understand that they can affect others' perception of their emotions by changing their affective displays ( Aloise-Young, 1993 ). Children who are unable to self-regulate have emotional difficulties that may interfere with their learning. Just as with younger children, significant adults in a child's life can help the child learn to self-regulate ( Tomlinson, 2014 ).

Children's increasing self-regulation means they have a greater ability to follow instructions independently in a manner that would not be true of preschool or younger children. Educators can rely on the growing cognitive abilities in elementary school children in using instructional approaches that depend more independently on children's own discoveries, their use of alternative inquiry strategies, and their greater persistence in problem solving. Educators in these settings are scaffolding the skills that began to develop earlier, so that children are able to gradually apply those skills with less and less external support. This serves as a bridge to succeeding in upper primary grades, so if students lack necessary knowledge and skills in any domain of development and learning, their experience during the early elementary grades is crucial in helping them gain those competencies.

Building on many of the themes that have emerged from this discussion, the following sections continue by looking in more depth at cognitive development with respect to learning specific subjects and then at other major elements of development, including general learning competencies, socioemotional development, and physical development and health.

  • LEARNING SPECIFIC SUBJECTS

Interrelationships among different kinds of skills and abilities contribute to young children's acquisition of content knowledge and competencies, which form a foundation for later academic success. These skills and abilities include the general cognitive development discussed above, the general learning competencies that allow children to control their own attention and thinking; and the emotion regulation that allows children to control their own emotions and participate in classroom activities in a productive way (the latter two are discussed in sections later in this chapter). Still another important category of skills and abilities, the focus of this section, is subject-matter content knowledge and skills, such as competencies needed specifically for learning language and literacy or mathematics.

Content knowledge and skills are acquired through a developmental process. As children learn about a topic, they progress through increasingly sophisticated levels of thinking with accompanying cognitive components. These developmental learning paths can be used as the core of a learning trajectory through which students can be supported by educators who understand both the content and those levels of thinking. Each learning trajectory has three parts: a goal (to develop a certain competence in a topic), a developmental progression (children constructing each level of thinking in turn), and instructional activities (tasks and teaching practices designed to enable thinking at each higher level). Learning trajectories also promote the learning of skills and concepts together—an effective approach that leads to both mastery and more fluent, flexible use of skills, as well as to superior conceptual understanding ( Fuson and Kwon, 1992 ; National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008 ). See Chapter 6 for additional discussion of using learning trajectories and other instructional practices.

Every subject area requires specific content knowledge and skills that are acquired through developmental learning processes. It is not possible to cover the specifics here for every subject area a young child learns. To maintain a feasible scope, this chapter covers two core subject areas: (1) language and literacy and (2) mathematics. This scope is not meant to imply that learning in other areas, such as science, engineering, social studies, or the arts, is unimportant or less subject specific. Rather, these two were selected because they are foundational for other subject areas and for later academic achievement, and because how they are learned has been well studied in young children compared with many other subject areas.

Language and Literacy

Children's language development and literacy development are central to each other. The development of language and literacy includes knowledge and skills in such areas as vocabulary, syntax, grammar, phonological awareness, writing, reading, comprehension, and discourse skills. The following sections address the development of language and literacy skills, including the relationship between the two; the role of the language-learning environment; socioeconomic disparities in early language environments; and language and literacy development in dual language learners.

Development of Oral Language Skills

Language skills build in a developmental progression over time as children increase their vocabulary, average sentence length, complexity and sophistication of sentence structure and grammar, and ability to express new ideas through words ( Kipping et al., 2012 ). Catts and Kamhi (1999) define five features of language that both work independently and interact as children develop language skills: phonology (speech sounds of language), semantics (meanings of words and phrases), morphology (meaningful parts of words and word tenses), syntax (rules for combining and ordering words in phrases), and pragmatics (appropriate use of language in context). The first three parameters combined (phonology, semantics, and morphology) enable listening and speaking vocabulary to develop, and they also contribute to the ability to read individual words. All five features of language contribute to the ability to understand sentences, whether heard or read (O' Connor, 2014 ). Thus, while children's development of listening and speaking abilities are important in their own right, oral language development also contributes to reading skills.

Developing oral communication skills are closely linked to the interactions and social bonds between adults and children. As discussed earlier in this chapter, parents' and caregivers' talk with infants stimulates—and affects—language comprehension long before children utter their first words. This comprehension begins with pragmatics—the social aspects of language that include facial and body language as well as words, such that infants recognize positive (and negative) interactions. Semantics (understanding meanings of words and clusters of words that are related) soon follows, in which toddlers link objects and their attributes to words. Between the ages of 2 and 4, most children show dramatic growth in language, particularly in understanding the meanings of words, their interrelationships, and grammatical forms ( Scarborough, 2001 ).

Karmiloff and Karmiloff-Smith (2001) suggest that children build webs among words with similar semantics, which leads to broader generalizations among classes of related words. When adults are responsive to children's questions and new experiences, children expand their knowledge of words and the relationships among them. Then, as new words arise from conversation, storytelling, and book reading, these words are linked to existing webs to further expand the store of words children understand through receptive language and use in their own conversation. The more often adults use particular words in conversation with young children, the sooner children will use those words in their own speech ( Karmiloff and Karmiloff-Smith, 2001 ). Research has linked the size of vocabulary of 2-year-olds to their reading comprehension through fifth grade ( Lee, 2011 ).

One of the best-documented methods for improving children's vocabularies is interactive storybook reading between children and their caregivers (O' Connor, 2014 ). Conversations as stories are read improve children's vocabulary ( Hindman et al., 2008 ; Weizman and Snow, 2001 ), especially when children are encouraged to build on the possibilities of storybooks by following their interests ( Whitehurst et al., 1988 ; Zucker et al., 2013 ). Book reading stimulates conversation outside the immediate context—for example, children ask questions about the illustrations that may or may not be central to the story. This introduces new words, which children attach to the features of the illustrations they point out and incorporate into book-centered conversations. This type of language, removed from the here and now, is decontextualized language. Children exposed to experiences not occurring in their immediate environment are more likely to understand and use decontextualized language ( Hindman et al., 2008 ). Repeated routines also contribute to language development. As books are read repeatedly, children become familiar with the vocabulary of the story and their conversations can be elaborated. Routines help children with developmental delays acquire language and use it more intelligibly ( van Kleek, 2004 ).

Conversation around a story's content and emphasis on specific words in the text (i.e., the phonological and print features of words alongside their meanings) have long-term effects ( Zucker et al., 2013 ). The quality of adult readers' interactions with children appears to be especially important to children's vocabulary growth (see also Coyne et al., 2009 ; Justice et al., 2005 ). In a study with preschool children, Zucker and colleagues (2013) found that teachers' intentional talk during reading had a longer-lasting effect on the children's language skills than the frequency of the teachers' reading to the children. Moreover, the effect of the teachers' talk during reading was not moderated by the children's initial vocabulary or literacy abilities. The long-term effect of high-quality teacher–child book-centered interactions in preschool lasted through the end of first grade.

New research shows that the effects of interactive reading also hold when adapted to the use of digital media as a platform for decontextualized language and other forms of language development. A study of videobooks showed that when adults were trained to use dialogic questioning techniques with the videos, 3-year-olds learned new words and recalled the books' storylines ( Strouse et al., 2013 ). However, a few studies of e-books also have shown that the bells and whistles of the devices can get in the way of those back-and-forth conversations if the readers and the e-book designers are not intentional about using the e-books to develop content knowledge and language skills ( Parish-Morris et al., 2013 ). (See also the discussion of effective use of technology in instruction in Chapter 6 .)

Alongside developing depth of vocabulary (including the meaning of words and phrases and their appropriate use in context), other important parameters of language development are syntax (rules for combining and ordering words in phrases, as in rules of grammar) and morphology (meaningful parts of words and word tenses). Even before the age of 2, toddlers parse a speech stream into grammatical units ( Hawthorne and Gerken, 2014 ). Long before preschool, most children join words together into sentences and begin to use the rules of grammar (i.e., syntax) to change the forms of words (e.g., adding s for plurals or ed for past tense). Along with these morphemic changes to words, understanding syntax helps children order the words and phrases in their sentences to convey and to change meaning. Before children learn to read, the rules of syntax help them derive meaning from what they hear and convey meaning through speech. Cunningham and Zibulsky (2014 , p. 45) describe syntactic development as “the ability to understand the structure of a sentence, including its tense, subject, and object.”

Although syntactic understanding develops for most children through conversation with adults and older children, children also use these rules of syntax to extract meaning from printed words. This becomes an important reading skill after first grade, when text meaning is less likely to be supported with pictures. Construction of sentences with passive voice and other complex, decontextualized word forms are more likely to be found in books and stories than in directive conversations with young children. An experimental study illustrates the role of exposure to syntactic structures in the development of language comprehension ( Vasilyeva et al., 2006 ). Four-year-olds listened to stories in active or passive voice. After listening to ten stories, their understanding of passages containing these syntactic structures was assessed. Although students in both groups understood and could use active voice (similar to routine conversation), those who listened to stories with passive voice scored higher on comprehension of this structure.

Children's understanding of morphology—the meaningful parts of words—begins in preschool for most children, as they recognize and use inflected endings to represent verb tense (e.g., -ing, -ed, -s) and plurals, and continues in the primary grades as children understand and use prefixes and suffixes. By second and third grade, children's use of morphemes predicts their reading comprehension ( Nagy et al., 2006 ; Nunes et al., 2012 ).

Development of Literacy Skills

Literacy skills follow a developmental trajectory such that early skills and stages lead into more complex and integrated skills and stages ( Adams, 1990 ). For example, phonemic awareness is necessary for decoding printed words ( Ball and Blachman, 1991 ; Bradley and Bryant, 1983 ; O'Connor et al., 1995 ), but it is not sufficient. Students need to understand the alphabetic principle (that speech sounds can be represented by letters of the alphabet, which is how speech is captured in print) before they can use their phonemic awareness (the ability to hear and manipulate sounds in spoken words) to independently decode words they have never seen before ( Byrne and Fielding-Barnsley, 1989 ; O'Connor and >Jenkins, 1995 ). Thus, instruction that combines skill development for 4- to 6-year-old children in phonemic awareness, letter knowledge, and conceptual understanding and use of these skills is more effective than teaching the skills in isolation ( Byrne and Fielding-Barnsley, 1989 ; O'Connor and Jenkins, 1995 ).

Seminal theories and studies of reading describe an inextricable link between language development and reading achievement (e.g., Byrne and Fielding-Barnsley, 1995 ; Gough and Tunmer, 1986 ; Hoover and Gough, 1990 ; Johnston and Kirby, 2006 ; Joshi and Aaron, 2000 ; Tunmer and Hoover, 1993 ; Vellutino et al., 2007 ). Early oral language competencies predict later literacy ( Pearson and Hiebert, 2010 ). Not only do young children with stronger oral language competencies acquire new language skills faster than students with poorly developed oral language competencies ( Dickinson and Porche, 2011 ), but they also learn key literacy skills faster, such as phonemic awareness and understanding of the alphabetic principle ( Cooper et al., 2002 ). Both of these literacy skills in turn facilitate learning to read in kindergarten and first grade. By preschool and kindergarten listening and speaking abilities have long-term impacts on children's reading and writing abilities in third through fifth grade ( Lee, 2011 ; Nation and Snowling, 1999 ; Sénéchal et al., 2006 ).

Vocabulary development (a complex and integrative feature of language that grows continuously) and reading words (a skill that most children master by third or fourth grade) ( Ehri, 2005 ) are reciprocally related, and both reading words accurately and understanding what words mean contribute to reading comprehension ( Gough et al., 1996 ). Because comprehending and learning from text depend largely upon a deep understanding of the language used to communicate the ideas and concepts expressed, oral language skills (i.e., vocabulary, syntax, listening comprehension) are at the core of this relationship between language and reading ( NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2005 ; Perfetti, 1985 ; Perfetti and Hart, 2002 ). For example, children with larger speaking vocabularies in preschool may have an easier time with phoneme awareness and the alphabetic principle because they can draw on more words to explore the similarities among the sounds they hear in spoken words and the letters that form the words ( Metsala and Walley, 1998 ). Each word a child knows can influence how well she or he understands a sentence that uses that word, which in turn can influence the acquisition of knowledge and the ability to learn new words. A stronger speaking and listening vocabulary provides a deeper and wider field of words students can attempt to match to printed words. Being bogged down by figuring out what a given word means slows the rate of information processing and limits what is learned from a sentence. Thus, differences in early vocabulary can have cascading, cumulative effects ( Fernald et al., 2013 ; Huttenlocher, 1998 ). The transition from speaking and listening to reading and writing is not a smooth one for many children. Although a well-developed vocabulary can make that transition easier, many children also have difficulty learning the production and meanings of words. Longitudinal studies of reading disability have found that 70 percent of poor readers had a history of language difficulties ( Catts et al., 1999 ).

Conclusion About the Development of Language and Literacy Skills The oral language and vocabulary children learn through interactions with parents, siblings, and caregivers and through high-quality interactions with educators provide the foundation for later literacy and for learning across all subject areas, as well as for their socioemotional well-being. The language interactions children experience at home and in school influence their developing minds and their understanding of concepts and ideas.

Role of the Language-Learning Environment

Today's science of reading development focuses more broadly than on teaching children to read the actual words on a page. As stressed throughout this report, young children's development entails a back-and-forth process of social interactions with knowledgeable others in their environment ( Bruner, 1978 ; NRC and IOM, 2000 ; Vygotsky, 1978 , 1986 ), and research has focused on the language of these interactions, examining how children's linguistic experiences influence aspects of their development over time, including their literacy development. The daily talk to which children are exposed and in which they participate is essential for developing their minds—a key ingredient for building their knowledge of the world and their understanding of concepts and ideas. In turn, this conceptual knowledge is a cornerstone of reading success.

The bulk of the research on early linguistic experiences has investigated language input in the home environment, demonstrating the features of caregivers' (usually the mother's) speech that promote language development among young children. The evidence accumulated emphasizes the importance of the quantity of communicative input (i.e., the number of words and sentences spoken) as well as the quality of that input, as measured by the variety of words and syntactic structures used (for relevant reviews, see Rowe, 2012 ; Vasilyeva and Waterfall, 2011 ). Because children's language development is sensitive to these inputs, variability in children's language-based interactions in the home environment explains some of the variance in their language development.

A smaller but growing and compelling research base is focused on how children's literacy skills are influenced by language use in early care and education settings and schools—for example, linguistic features of these settings or elementary school teachers' speech and its relationship to children's reading outcomes ( Greenwood et al., 2011 ). This research has particularly relevant implications for educational practices (discussed further in Chapter 6 ).

The language environment of the classroom can function as a support for developing the kind of language that is characteristic of the school curriculum—for example, giving children opportunities to develop the sophisticated vocabulary and complex syntax found in texts, beginning at a very early age ( Schleppegrell, 2003 ; Snow and Uccelli, 2009 ). Moreover, advances in cognitive science suggest that it is not enough to be immersed in environments that offer multiple opportunities for exposure to varied and rich language experiences. Rather, the process also needs to be socially mediated through more knowledgeable persons who can impart their knowledge to the learner; again, social interaction is a critical component of cognitive development and learning. Early childhood settings and elementary classrooms thus not only present opportunities for exposure to varied language- and literacy-rich activities (whether written or spoken), but also provide a person who is expert in mediating the learning process—the educator.

Research demonstrates that teachers' use of high-quality language is linked to individual differences in language and literacy skills; this work likewise shows the substantial variation in the quality of teacher talk in early childhood classrooms (e.g., Bowers and Vasilyeva, 2011 ; Gámez and Levine, 2013 ; Greenwood et al., 2011 ; Huttenlocher et al., 2002 ). For example, Huttenlocher and colleagues (2002) found greater syntactic skills in preschoolers exposed to teachers who used more syntactically complex utterances. Another study found for monolingual English-speaking children that fourth-grade reading comprehension levels were predicted by exposure to sophisticated vocabulary in preschool. These effects were mediated by children's vocabulary and literacy skills in kindergarten ( Dickinson and Porche, 2011 ).

In classroom studies focused on the linguistic environment, the level of analysis has involved broad measures of language use, such as amount of talk (i.e., teacher–student interactions by minute: Connor et al., 2006 ), amount of instruction (i.e., in teacher-managed versus child-managed instruction: Connor et al., 2007 ), type of interaction style (i.e., didactic versus cognitively demanding talk or the amount of extended discourse: Dickinson and Smith, 1991 ; Jacoby and Lesaux, 2014 ; Smith and Dickinson, 1994 ), or instructional moves made by the teacher (e.g., modeling: see review in Lawrence and Snow, 2011 ). A commonly included measurement that has been linked to children's literacy development is extended discourse, defined as talk that “requires participants to develop understandings beyond the here and now and that requires the use of several utterances or turns to build a linguistic structure, such as in explanations, narratives, or pretend” ( Snow et al., 2001 , p. 2). Children are better prepared to comprehend narrative texts they encounter in school if their early language environments provide more exposure to and opportunities to participate in extended discourse. This is because extended discourse and narrative texts share similar patterns for communicating ideas ( Uccelli et al., 2006 ).

Engaging groups of children in effective extended discourse involves asking and discussing open-ended questions and encouraging turn taking, as well as monitoring the group to involve nonparticipating children ( Girolametto and Weitzman, 2002 ). In addition to using interactive storybook and text reading as a platform for back-and-forth conversations (often referred to as interactive or dialogic reading, as described in the preceding section) ( Mol et al., 2009 ; Zucker et al., 2013 ), engaging children in extended discourse throughout classroom activities (e.g., small-group learning activities, transitions and routines [ van Kleek, 2004 ], dramatic play [ Mages, 2008 ; Morrow and Schickedanz, 2006 ]) is fundamental to providing a high-quality language-learning environment ( Jacoby and Lesaux, 2014 ).

In an example of the influence of the quantity and quality of teachers' language input in linguistically diverse classrooms, Bowers and Vasilyeva (2011) found that the total number of words produced by teachers and the diversity of their speech (which was entirely in English) were related to vocabulary gains for children from both English-only households and households in which English was not the primary language, respectively. Thus, they found that preschool dual language learners benefited only from increased quantities of language exposure and showed a negative relationship between vocabulary growth and teachers' syntactic complexity. By contrast, the English-only children—who presumably had more developed English language proficiency skills—benefited from the diversity of teachers' vocabulary and syntactic complexity. These findings are consistent with the notion that to promote language learning, different inputs are needed at different developmental stages ( Dickinson and Freiberg, 2009 ; Gámez and Lesaux, 2012 ). Children benefit from hearing simplified speech during very early word learning ( Furrow et al., 1979 ). With more exposure to language and more advanced vocabulary development, they benefit from speech input that is more complex (i.e., Hoff and Naigles, 2002 ). Hoff (2006) suggests that if input is too complex, children filter it out without negative consequences—as long as sufficient beneficial input is available to them. On the other hand, “children have no way to make up for input that is too simple” ( Hoff, 2006 , p. 75).

An important consideration in light of these findings is that recent research in early childhood classrooms serving children from low-income backgrounds suggests that daily high-quality language-building experiences may be rare for these children. For example, in a Head Start organization serving large numbers of Latino children a recent observational study found a preschool environment lacking in the frequent and high-quality teacher–child language interactions that are needed to support language and literacy development ( Jacoby and Lesaux, 2014 ). Literacy instruction was highly routine based and with low-level language structures. Extended discourse was infrequently used; only 22 percent of observed literacy-based lessons included at least one instance of extended discourse between a teacher and a child or group of children. Instead, teachers asked questions that yielded short answers or linked only to the here and now (e.g., What day is it today? What is the weather today? ). These features of infrequent extended discourse and predominantly routine-based literacy instruction were remarkably stable across teachers and classrooms. Other research investigating teacher talk in Head Start preschool classrooms has produced similar findings (e.g., Dickinson et al., 2008 ).

This is consistent with findings that there are sizable cultural and socioeconomic differences in high-quality language-promoting experiences in the home and in the classroom environment in early childhood ( Dickinson, 2003 ; Dickinson and Porche, 2011 ; Dickinson and Tabors, 2001 ; Raikes et al., 2006 ), just as such differences have been found in the number of words children hear by the time they enter school ( Bradley and Corwyn, 2002 ; Fernald et al., 2013 ; Hart and Risley, 1995 ; Schneidman et al., 2013 ; Weisleder and Fernald, 2013 ). At the same time, for children from low-resource backgrounds oral language skills show an even stronger connection to later academic outcomes than for children from high-resource backgrounds. Given these findings, rich linguistic experiences at early ages may therefore be especially important for these children. Even small improvements in the literacy environment can have especially strong effects for children who are raised in low-income households ( Dearing et al., 2001 ; Dickinson and Porche, 2011 ).

In sum, the language environment has important effects on children's learning, and children benefit from extensive opportunities to listen to and use complex spoken language ( National Early Literacy Panel, 2008 ). Teachers' use of high-quality language is linked to individual differences in language and literacy skills, and there is considerable variation in the quantity and quality of teachers' language use across classrooms. The quality of the classroom language environment is a lever for lasting improvements in children's language and literacy development, and it is important to tailor classroom talk to match the developmental stage of children's language acquisition.

Creating a Rich Language Environment: Implications for Adults

Improving language environments for young children requires daily learning opportunities that focus on the diversity and complexity of language used with young children. Practically speaking, this can be achieved through extended discourse, with multiple exchanges or turns that go beyond the immediate “here and now” using explanations, narratives, or pretend. Extended discourse can take place throughout all activities and in specific interactions, especially using book reading as a platform for back-and-forth conversations.

Further research is needed to advance understanding of language-based classroom processes and how dynamic and ongoing interactions facilitate or impede children's literacy. Such studies could advance existing research in at least two ways. In particular, it could further elucidate how language-based social processes in the classroom affect literacy development for the many students who enter schools and other care and education settings with limited proficiency in English. The majority of published studies focused on language-based interactions are focused on English-only learners, despite the fact that social processes can be experienced differently by different groups, even within the same setting ( Rogoff and Angelillo, 2002 ; Tseng and Seidman, 2007 ). Gámez and Levine (2013) suggest that future research examine the influence of dual-language input on dual language learners' language development; the nature of teacher talk during different parts of the instructional day, including joint book reading, and how these language experiences predict dual language learners' language skills; and the impact of classroom talk interventions—those that aim to manipulate the frequency and complexity of teachers' language—on both the language environment and dual language learners' language development.

In addition, prior research has measured a two-way process in a largely unidirectional manner—measuring speech only from parent to child or educator to student. It would be more valuable going forward if research were guided by the notion that the language-based interactions between students and educators mediate instruction, and were therefore to explore how communicative feedback loops, both adult–child and child–peer interactions, influence children's learning and development. Taking into account the student's contribution to the classroom language environment is particularly important in light of evidence that teachers modify their speech to conform to their students' limited language proficiency levels, potentially leading to a lower-quality language environment that impedes students' language growth ( Ellis, 2008 ; see Huttenlocher et al., 2010 ; Justice et al., 2013 ). More specifically, Justice and colleagues (2013) suggest that future research examine teacher–child language interactions in a multidimensional way to explore how syntactic complexity, cognitive demand, and even linguistic form (e.g., questions, comments) relate to each other; the links between children's use of complex syntax in classroom-based interactions and their future general language ability; and interventions designed to enhance classroom language interactions, focusing on both proximal and distal outcomes for children. Finally, greater understanding is needed of the ways in which the classroom language processes described in this section might act as a foundational mediator of the efficacy of interventions focused on learning outcomes in other domains and subject areas.

Alongside student–educator interactions, studies show that peer-to-peer interactions in the classroom may also have positive impacts on children's vocabulary and expressive language abilities. Children spend a significant amount of time interacting with other children in classroom settings, and a 2009 study examining the language growth and abilities of 4-year-olds in prekindergarten classrooms found that peers who have higher language abilities positively affect other children's language development. This study also found that children with advanced language skills will receive greater benefits from interacting with peers who also have advanced language skills ( Mashburn et al., 2009 ). These findings are similar to another study showing that peer interactions in the classroom, along with the ability level of the peers, have positive effects on the child's cognitive, prereading, expressive language skills ( Henry and Rickman, 2007 ). In order to achieve these benefits, however, the preschool classrooms need to be designed so that peers can interact with one another, and include activities such as reading books and engaging in play together. Children with teachers who organize the day with optimal amounts of time for peer-to-peer interactions may achieve greater language growth ( Mashburn et al., 2009 ).

Language and Literacy Development in Dual Language Learners 1

For children whose home language is not the predominant language of their school, educators and schools need to ensure the development of English proficiency. Both parents and preschool teachers can be particularly useful in improving these children's depth of vocabulary ( Aukrust, 2007 ; Roberts, 2008 ). At the same time, children can be helped to both build and maintain their first language while adding language and literacy skills in English ( Espinosa, 2005 ). In support of this as a long-term goal are the potential advantages of being bilingual, including maintaining a cultural and linguistic heritage and conferring an advantage in the ability to communicate with a broader population in future social, educational, and work environments. Additionally, an emerging field of research, albeit with mixed results to date, explores potential advantages of being bilingual that are linked more directly to cognitive development, starting in early childhood and extending to preserving cognitive function and delaying the symptoms of dementia in the elderly ( Bialystok, 2011 ; de Bruin et al., 2015 ).

Bilingual or multilingual children are faced with more communicative challenges than their monolingual peers. A child who frequently experiences failure to be understood or to understand may be driven to pay more attention to context, paralinguistic cues, and gestures in order to interpret an utterance, and thus become better at reading such cues. The result may be improved development of theory of mind and understanding of pragmatics ( Yow and Markman, 2011a , b ). In addition, the need to continually suppress one language for another affords ongoing practice in inhibitory or executive control, which could confer advantages on a range of inhibitory control tasks in children and helps preserve this fundamental ability in aging adults ( Bialystok, 2011 ; Bialystok and Craik, 2010 ; Bialystok et al., 2009 ).

One challenge in the education of dual language learners is that they sometimes are classified along with children with special needs. One reason for this is the lack of good assessment tools to help distinguish the nature of the difficulties experienced by dual language learners—whether due to a learning disability or to the fact that learning a second language is difficult, takes time, and develops differently in different children ( Hamayan et al., 2013 ).

Mathematics

Children's early knowledge of mathematics is surprisingly important, and it strongly predicts later success in mathematics ( Denton and West, 2002 ; Koponen et al., 2013 ; Passolunghi et al., 2007 ). Mathematics knowledge in preschool predicts mathematics achievement even into high school ( National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008 ; NRC, 2009 ; Stevenson and Newman, 1986 ). Mathematics ability and language ability also are interrelated as mutually reinforcing skills ( Duncan et al., 2007 ; Farran et al., 2005 ; Lerkkanen et al., 2005 ; O'Neill et al., 2004 ; Praet et al., 2013 ; Purpura et al., 2011 ). Indeed, mathematical thinking reaches beyond competence with numbers and shapes to form a foundation for general cognition and learning ( Clements and Sarama, 2009 ; Sarama et al., 2012 ), and problems with mathematics are the best predictor of failure to graduate high school. Mathematics therefore appears to be a core subject and a core component of thinking and learning ( Duncan and Magnuson, 2011 ; Duncan et al., 2007 ).

Given its general importance to academic success ( Sadler and Tai, 2007 ), children need a robust foundation in mathematics knowledge in their earliest years. Multiple analyses suggest that mathematics learning should begin early, especially for children at risk for later difficulties in school ( Byrnes and Wasik, 2009 ; Clements and Sarama, 2014 ). Well before first grade, children can learn the skills and concepts that support more complex mathematics understanding later. Particularly important areas of mathematics for young children to learn include number, which includes whole number, operations, and relations; geometry; spatial thinking; and measurement. Children also need to develop proficiency in processes for both general and specific mathematical reasoning ( NRC, 2009 ).

If given opportunities to learn, young children possess a remarkably broad, complex, and sophisticated—albeit informal—knowledge of mathematics ( Baroody, 2004 ; Clarke et al., 2006 ; Clements et al., 1999 ; Fuson, 2004 ; Geary, 1994 ; Thomson et al., 2005 ). In their free play, almost all preschoolers engage in substantial amounts of premathematical activity. They count objects; compare magnitudes; and explore patterns, shapes, and spatial relations. Importantly, this is true regardless of a child's income level or gender ( Seo and Ginsburg, 2004 ). Preschoolers can also, for example, learn to invent solutions to simple arithmetic problems ( Sarama and Clements, 2009 ).

High-quality mathematics education can help children realize their potential in mathematics achievement ( Doig et al., 2003 ; Thomson et al., 2005 ). However, without such education starting, and continuing throughout, the early years, many children will be on a trajectory in which they will have great difficulty catching up to their peers ( Rouse et al., 2005 ). As discussed further in Chapter 6 , early childhood classrooms typically are ill suited to helping children learn mathematics and underestimate their ability to do so. In some cases, children can even experience a regression on some mathematics skills during prekindergarten and kindergarten ( Farran et al., 2007 ; Wright, 1994 ). Mathematics needs to be conceptualized as more than skills, and its content as more than counting and simple shapes. Without building a robust understanding of mathematics in the early years, children too often come to believe that math is a guessing game and a system of rules without reason ( Munn, 2006 ).

Both education and experience can make a difference, as evidenced by data from the latest international Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study, which added data collection on early mathematics education ( Mullis et al., 2012 ). Students with higher mathematics achievement at fourth and sixth grades had parents who reported that they often engaged their children in early numeracy activities and that their children had attended preprimary education and started school able to do early numeracy tasks (e.g., simple addition and subtraction). Those children who had attended preschool or kindergarten had higher achievement, while the 13 percent who had attended no preprimary school had much lower average mathematics achievement ( Mullis et al., 2012 ).

Developmental Progression of Learning Mathematics

Children move through a developmental progression in specific mathematical domains, which informs learning trajectories as important tools for supporting learning and teaching. Recent work based on empirical research and emphasizing a cognitive science perspective conceptualizes learning trajectories for mathematics as “descriptions of children's thinking and learning in a specific mathematical domain, and a related, conjectured route through a set of instructional tasks designed to engender those mental processes or actions hypothesized to move children through a developmental progression of levels of thinking, created with the intent of supporting children's achievement of specific goals in that mathematical domain” ( Clements and Sarama, 2004 , p. 83).

Box 4-5 illustrates the concept of a developmental progression through the example of subitizing , an oft-neglected mathematical goal for young children. Research shows that subitizing, the rapid and accurate recognition of the number in a small group, is one of the main abilities very young children should develop ( Palmer and Baroody, 2011 ; Reigosa-Crespo et al., 2013 ). Through subitizing, children can discover critical properties of number, such as conservation and compensation ( Clements and Sarama, 2014 ; Maclellan, 2012 ) and develop such capabilities as unitizing and arithmetic. Subitizing is not the only way children think and learn about number. Counting is the other method of quantification. It is the first and most basic mathematical algorithm and one of the more critical early mathematics competencies ( Aunola et al., 2004 ; National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008 ). Chapter 6 includes examples from a complete learning trajectory—goal, developmental progression, and instructional activities—for counting ( Clements and Sarama, 2014 ).

Subitizing: A Developmental Progression. A quantitative, or numerical, “sense” is innate or develops early. For example, very young children possess approximate number systems (ANSs) that allow them to discriminate large and small sets, (more...)

Children with Special Needs

Children with special needs in learning mathematics fall into two categories. Those with mathematical difficulties struggle to learn mathematics for any reason; this category may apply to as many as 35-40 percent of students ( Berch and Mazzocco, 2007 ). Those with specific mathematics learning disabilities are more severe cases; these students have a memory or cognitive deficit that interferes with their ability to learn math ( Geary, 2004 ). This category may apply to about 6-7 percent ( Berch and Mazzocco, 2007 ; Mazzocco and Myers, 2003 ). In one study, this classification persisted in third grade for 63 percent of those classified as having mathematics learning disabilities in kindergarten ( Mazzocco and Myers, 2003 ).

Mathematics learning disabilities, while assumed to have a genetic basis, currently are defined by students' behaviors—yet with ongoing debate among experts about what those behaviors are. One consistent finding is that students with mathematics learning disabilities have difficulty retrieving basic arithmetic facts quickly. This has been hypothesized to be the result of an inability to store or retrieve facts and impairments in visual-spatial representation. As early as kindergarten, limited working memory and speed of cognitive processing may be problems for these children ( Geary et al., 2007 ). Many young children with learning disabilities in reading show a similar rapid-naming deficit for letters and words ( Siegel and Mazabel, 2013 ; Steacy et al., 2014 ). Another possibility is that a lack of higher-order, or executive, control of verbal material causes difficulty learning basic arithmetic facts or combinations. For example, students with mathematics learning disabilities may have difficulty inhibiting irrelevant associations. An illustration of this would be hearing “5 + 4” and saying “6” because it follows 5.

One explanation for the difficulty students with mathematics learning disabilities have learning basic arithmetic combinations might be delays in understanding counting. These students may not fully understand counting nor recognize errors in counting as late as second grade. They persist in using immature counting strategies, such as counting “one-by-one” on their fingers, throughout elementary school ( Geary et al., 1992 ; Ostad, 1998 ). Other experts, however, claim that a lack of specific competencies, such as subitizing, is more important ( Berch and Mazzocco, 2007 ).

Some evidence suggests that it is possible to predict which kindergartners are at risk for mathematics learning disabilities based on skill including reading numerals, number constancy, magnitude judgments of one-digit numbers, or mental addition of one-digit numbers ( Mazzocco and Thompson, 2005 ). However, until more is known, students should be classified as having mathematics learning disabilities only with great caution and after good mathematics instruction has been provided. Such labeling in the earliest years could do more harm than good ( Clements and Sarama, 2012 ).

Interrelationships Between Mathematics and Language

It can appear that language is less of a concern in mathematics compared to other subjects because it is assumed to be based on numbers or symbols, but this is not the case ( Clements et al., 2013a ). In fact, children learn math mainly from oral language, rather than from mathematical symbolism or textbooks ( Janzen, 2008 ). In addition, “talking math” is more than just using mathematics terms ( Clements and Sarama, 2014 ). Therefore, both oral language and literacy in general, as well as the “language of mathematics,” are important for learning ( Vukovic and Lesaux, 2013 ). Vocabulary and knowledge of print are both predictors of later numeracy ( Purpura et al., 2011 ). Similarly, growth in mathematics from kindergarten to third grade is related to both early numerical skills and phonological processing ( Vukovic, 2012 ). In one study of linguistically and ethnically diverse children aged 6-9 years, language ability predicted gains in geometry, probability, and data analysis but not in arithmetic or algebra (controlling for reading ability, visual–spatial working memory, and gender) ( Vukovic and Lesaux, 2013 ). Thus, language may affect how children make meaning of mathematics but not its complex arithmetic procedures.

Moreover, there is an important bidirectional relationship between learning in mathematics and language ( Sarama et al., 2012 ). Each has related developmental milestones. Children learn number words at the same time as other linguistic labels. Most children recognize by the age of 2 which words are for numbers and use them only in appropriate contexts ( Fuson, 1988 ). Each also has related developmental patterns, with learning progressing along similar paths. In both, children recognize the whole before its parts. In learning language, this is word before syllable, syllable before rime-onset, and rime-onset before phoneme (see also Anthony et al., 2003 ; Ziegler and Goswami, 2005 ). Similarly in mathematics, numbers are first conceptualized as unbreakable categories and then later as composites (e.g., 5 is composed of 3 and 2) ( Butterworth, 2005 ; Sarama and Clements, 2009 ). By 6 years old in most cultures, children have been exposed to symbol representations that are both alphabetic and numerical, and they begin to be able to segment words into phonemes and numbers into singletons (e.g., understanding that 3 is 1 and 1 and 1) ( Butterworth, 2005 ; Sarama and Clements, 2009 ; Wagner et al., 1993 ). The ability to identify the component nature of words and numbers predicts the ability to read ( Adams, 1990 ; Stanovich and Siegel, 1994 ) and to compute ( Geary, 1990 , 1993 ). In addition to these similarities in typical developmental pathways, many children with learning disabilities experience deficits in competencies related to both language/literacy and numeracy ( Geary, 1993 ; Hecht et al., 2001 ; NRC, 1998 ).

Furthermore, there appear to be shared competencies between the two subject areas. For example, preschoolers' narrative abilities (i.e., their abilities to convey all the main events of a story and offer a perspective on its events) have been shown to predict mathematics achievement 2 years later ( O'Neill et al., 2004 ). Beginning mathematics scores have been shown to be highly predictive of subsequent achievement in both reading and mathematics although beginning reading skills (such as letter recognition, word identification, and word sounds) were shown to be highly predictive of later reading (advanced competencies such as evaluation) but not mathematics learning ( Duncan et al., 2007 ).

A causal relationship between rich mathematics learning and developing language and literacy skills is supported by a randomized study of the effects of a math curriculum called Building Blocks on prekindergarten children's letter recognition and oral language skills. Building Blocks children performed the same as the children in the control group on letter recognition and on three oral language subscales but outperformed them on four subscales: ability to recall key words, use of complex utterances, willingness to reproduce narratives independently, and inference ( Sarama et al., 2012 ). These skills had no explicit relation to the math curriculum. Similarly, a study of 5- to 7-year-olds showed that an early mathematics and logical-mathematical intervention increased later scores in English by 14 percentile points ( Shayer and Adhami, 2010 ).

Time on task (or time on instruction) does affect learning, which naturally leads to consideration of potential conflicts or tradeoffs between time spent on different subjects (e.g., Bodovski and Farkas, 2007 ). Indeed, a frequent concern is that introducing a mathematics curriculum may decrease the time devoted to language and literacy, impeding children's development in those areas, which are heavily emphasized in early learning goals (see Clements and Sarama, 2009 ; Farran et al., 2007 ; Lee and Ginsburg, 2007 ; Sarama and Clements, 2009 ). However, this assumes that mathematics activities will not have a positive effect on language and literacy. Yet as described here, evidence from both educational and psychological research suggests the potential for high-quality instruction in each to have mutual benefits for learning in both subjects. Rich mathematical activities, such as discussing multiple solutions and solving narrative story problems, can help lay the groundwork for literacy through language development, while rich literacy activities can help lay the groundwork for mathematics development ( Sarama et al., 2012 ).

Children Who Are Dual Language Learners

For mathematics learning in children who are dual language learners, the language, not just the vocabulary, of mathematics need to be addressed ( Clements and Sarama, 2014 ). Challenges for dual language learners include both technical vocabulary, which can range in how similar or distinct terms are from everyday language, and the use of complex noun phrases. On the other hand, bilingual children often can understand a mathematical idea more readily because, after using different terms for it in different languages, they comprehend that the mathematical idea is abstract, and not tied to a specific term (see Secada, 1992 ).

There is evidence that the best approach is to teach these young children in their first language ( Celedón-Pattichis et al., 2010 ; Espada, 2012 ). At a minimum, their teachers need to connect everyday language with the language of math ( Janzen, 2008 ). It is also essential to build on the resources that bilingual children bring to learning mathematics—all cultures have “funds of knowledge” (culturally developed and historically accumulated bodies of knowledge and skills) that can be used to develop mathematical contexts and understandings ( Moll et al., 1992 ). Instructional practices for teaching mathematics with dual language learners are discussed further in Chapter 6 .

Conclusions About Learning Specific Subjects For subject-matter content knowledge and proficiency, children learn best when supported along a trajectory with three components: (1) their understanding of the subject-matter content itself, (2) their progress through predictable developmental levels and patterns of thinking related to their understanding of the content, and (3) instructional tasks and strategies that adults who work with children can employ to promote that learning at each level. For example: Almost all topics in mathematics follow predictable learning trajectories that include number counting and subitizing, number relationships and magnitude comparison, arithmetic operations, geometry and spatial sense, and measurement. Learning trajectories in literacy include specific developmental sequences in children's learning of phonological awareness and phonics (letter-sound correspondences), which together contribute to children's understanding of how spoken words are captured in reading and writing and thus to their advancement through broader levels of early literacy. Some principles of how children learn along a trajectory hold across subject-matter domains, but there are also substantive differences among subjects in the specific skills children need and in the learning trajectories. Both generalizable principles and subject-specific distinctions have implications for the knowledge and competencies needed to work with children. An important factor in children's learning of subject-matter content is how each of the components of learning trajectories both requires and develops aspects of learning that are not content specific, such as critical reasoning, executive function, self-regulation, learning skills, positive dispositions toward learning, and relationships.
  • GENERAL LEARNING COMPETENCIES

Educators, developmental scientists, and economists have long known that academic achievement is a result of both the growth of specific knowledge and the development of general learning competencies that regulate how children enlist cognitive resources when they encounter learning challenges, motivate advances in learning, and strengthen children's self-confidence as learners.

These general learning competencies have been labeled and categorized in various ways. Considerable recent research on some of these learning competencies has been conducted using the concept of “executive function,” which generally refers to a set of supervisory functions that regulate and control cognitive activity that affects learning ( Vitiello et al., 2011 ) and allow children to persevere with tasks, including learning tasks, even when facing fatigue, distraction, or decreased motivation. In the field of human development “mastery motivation” in infancy typically is indexed by the baby's persistence, focus, and curiosity in exploration and problem solving ( Morgan et al., 1990 ; Wang and Barrett, 2013 ). In preschool-age children, these skills often are conceptualized as the quality of the child's “approaches to learning,” which include motivation, engagement, and interest in learning activities. Heckman (2007) has used the term “noncognitive skills” to refer to many of these learning competencies, including self-control, persistence, self-discipline, motivation, and self-esteem, as well as future orientedness (i.e., the capacity to substitute long-term goals for immediate satisfactions). This label is used in contrast to the “cognitive skills” that are more often measured to predict children's later success, although there is considerable research that the “noncognitive skills” also support learning and achievement (see, e.g., Cunha and Heckman, 2010 ; Heckman, 2007 ), and they are highly relevant to cognitive skills in such areas as language, mathematics, science, and other traditional academic fields.

Here the alternative conceptualizations for these important aspects of child development and early learning are grouped as “learning competencies” to reflect their importance for early learning. Individual differences in these competencies are important determinants of learning and academic motivation, and children's experiences at home and in the classroom contribute to some of these differences. This section examines these competencies as well as their interrelationships with the previously discussed subject-matter domains of language and literacy and mathematics.

General Cognitive Skills

Several cognitive control processes are important for planning and executing goal-directed activity, which is needed for successful learning (e.g., Blair, 2002 ; Lyon and Krasnegor, 1996 ). These processes include, for example, short-term and working memory, attention control and shifting, cognitive flexibility (changing thinking between different concepts and thinking about multiple concepts simultaneously), inhibitory control (suppressing unproductive responses or strategies), and cognitive self-regulation. These processes also are closely related to emotion regulation, which is discussed later in the section on socioemotional development, and which also contributes to children's classroom success.

As noted previously, many general cognitive processes often are referred to collectively as “executive function,” although not everyone defines this construct in the same way (e.g., Miyake et al., 2000 ; Raver, 2013 ), and different disciplines and researchers differ as to which cognitive skills it includes. Other theoretical frameworks exist as well. For example, cognitive control and complexity theory postulates that executive function is an outcome, not an explanatory construct, and is the result of children's creation and application of rules (driven perhaps by an increase in reflection afforded by experience-dependent maturation of the prefrontal cortex) ( Müller et al., 2008 ; Zelazo and Carlson, 2012 ; Zelazo and Lyons, 2012 ). As with the overall domains of development displayed earlier in Figure 4-1 , the committee did not attempt to reconcile those different perspectives.

This variation in perspectives makes it difficult to parse the literature produced by different fields of research and practice. In general, however, executive function appears to improve most rapidly in young children ( Best et al., 2011 ; Blair, 2002 ; Hughes and Ensor, 2011 ; Romine and Reynolds, 2005 ; Schoemaker et al., 2014 ; Zelazo and Carlson, 2012 ). Executive function processes appear to be partially dependent on the development of the prefrontal cortex (the site of higher-order cognitive processes), notably through the preschool and kindergarten age range ( Bassett et al., 2012 ; Blair, 2002 ).

Short-Term and Working Memory

Short-term memory is the ability for short-term recall, such as of a sentence or important details from conversation and reading. Working memory allows children to hold in their memory information from multiple sources, whether heard or read, so they can use and link that information. Updating working memory is the ability to keep and use relevant information while engaging in another cognitively demanding task ( Conway et al., 2003 ; DeYoung, 2011 ).

Attention Control and Shifting

Attention control is the ability to focus attention and disregard distracting stimuli (e.g., a continuous performance task that requires a child to identify when some familiar object appears onscreen and ignore other objects that appear, or a task that requires ignoring extraneous information in a mathematics word problem). Attention shifting is a related process of switching a “mental set” while simultaneously ignoring distractions (e.g., counting by different units—tens and ones). Attention shifting and cognitive flexibility are often grouped.

Cognitive Flexibility

Cognitive flexibility capacities develop gradually throughout early childhood and have significant influences on children's social and academic competence. Cognitive flexibility is important, for example, for reading ( Duke and Block, 2012 ). Children who are better able to consider, at the same time, both letter-sound and semantic (meaning) information about words have better reading comprehension ( Cartwright, 2002 ; Cartwright et al., 2010 ). Reading comprehension also appears to improve when children are taught about words with multiple meanings (e.g., spell or plane ), and sentences with multiple meanings (e.g., “The woman chased the man on a motorcycle.”) ( Yuill, 1996 ; Zipke et al., 2009 ). In addition, interventions in young children that focus on cognitive flexibility have shown significant benefits for reading comprehension ( Cartwright, 2008 ).

Inhibitory Control

Inhibitory control involves controlling a dominant response (e.g., the first answer that comes to mind) so as to think about better strategies or ideas. The skill of simple response inhibition (withholding an initial, sometimes impulsive, response) develops during infancy through toddlerhood. Infants also develop some control of cognitive conflict in tasks in which an item of interest to them is first hidden in one location and then another, and the child must resist the response of searching in the first location ( Diamond, 1991 ; Müller et al., 2008 ; Rothbart and Rueda, 2005 ) (see Marcovitch and Zelazo, 2009 , for a model of possible mechanisms). Later in their first year, children can resolve conflict between their line of sight and their line of reaching ( Diamond, 1991 ). By about 30 months, they can successfully complete a spatial conflict task ( Rothbart and Rueda, 2005 ). From 3 to 5 years of age, complex response inhibition and response shifting develop, with attention shifting developing at about age 4 ( Bassett et al., 2012 ). The most rapid increase in inhibitory control is between 5 and 8 years of age, although moderate improvements are seen up to young adulthood ( Best et al., 2011 ).

Inhibitory control supports children's learning across subject-matter areas. As one example of its importance for mathematics, when the initial reading of a problem is not the correct one, children need to inhibit their impulse to answer (incorrectly) and carefully examine the problem. Consider the following problem: “There were six birds in a tree. Three birds already flew away. How many birds were there from the start?” Children have to inhibit the immediate desire to subtract prompted by the words “flew away” and perform addition instead.

Cognitive Self-Regulation

Cognitive self-regulation is what helps children plan ahead, focus attention, and remember past experiences. The construct of self-regulation and related concepts have a long history in psychology (e.g., Glaser, 1991 ; Markman, 1977 , 1981 ; Piaget and Szeminska, 1952 ; Sternberg, 1985 ; Vygotsky, 1978 ; Zelazo et al., 2003 ) and education (e.g., McGillicuddy-De Lisi, 1982 ; Steffe and Tzur, 1994 ). Most recently, researchers and educators have used the broad term self-regulation to refer to the processes involved in intentionally controlling attention, thinking, impulses, emotions, and behavior. In this way, self-regulation can be thought of in relation to several aspects of development, including the cognitive processes discussed here and the social and emotional processes discussed later in this chapter. Developmental psychobiological research and neuroimaging indicate that these subclasses are both neurally and behaviorally distinct while also being related and correlated ( Bassett et al., 2012 ; Hofmann et al., 2012 ; Hongwanishkul et al., 2005 ; Neuenschwander et al., 2012 ; Willoughby et al., 2011 ). Together, these types of self-regulation allow children to persevere with tasks even when facing difficulties in problem solving or learning, fatigue, distraction, or decreased motivation ( Blair and Razza, 2007 ; Neuenschwander et al., 2012 ). It is thus unsurprising that kindergarten teachers believe self-regulation is as important as academics ( Bassok and Rorem, 2014 ).

Both cognitive self-regulation and emotional self-regulation (discussed later in this chapter) contribute to socioemotional development and also play a role in learning. Although the relationship between various features of cognitive self-regulation and academic achievement has been well documented for older students (e.g., Bielaczyc et al., 1995 ; Zimmerman, 2002 ), less was known until recently about how self-regulation developed in the early years contributes to the later development of cognitive and emotional self-regulation and academic achievement ( NRC and IOM, 2000 ).

Children's self-regulation and their ability to successfully function in school settings are related in two ways. First, emotional self-regulation enables children to benefit from learning in various social contexts, including their capacities to manage emotions in interactions with educators as well as peers (e.g., one-on-one, in cooperative pairs, in large and small groups). It also assists them in conforming to classroom rules and routines. Second, cognitive self-regulation enables children to develop and make use of cognitive processes that are necessary for academic learning ( Anghel, 2010 ).

Although most studies have focused on specific effects of either cognitive or emotional self-regulation, evidence suggests that the two are interconnected. This link is probably due to the commonality of the neurological mechanisms governing both emotional and cognitive self-regulation. For example, children lacking emotion regulation are likely also to have problems with regulating cognitive processes, such as attention ( Derryberry and Reed, 1996 ; LeDoux, 1996 ). Moreover, earlier patterns in the development of emotion control have been shown to be predictive of children's later ability to exercise control over their cognitive functioning ( Blair, 2002 ).

Several studies have shown positive correlations between self-regulation and achievement in young children (e.g., Bierman et al., 2008b ; Blair and Razza, 2007 ; Blair et al., 2010 ; Bull et al., 1999 ; Cameron et al., 2012 ; Neuenschwander et al., 2012 ; Roebers et al., 2012 ; Welsh et al., 2010 ), although there are exceptions ( Edens and Potter, 2013 ). Preschoolers' cognitive self-regulation, including inhibitory control and attention shifting, were found to be related to measures of literacy and mathematics ability in kindergarten ( Blair and Razza, 2007 ). In another study, children with higher self-regulation, including attention, working memory, and inhibitory control, achieved at higher levels in literacy, language, and mathematics ( McClelland et al., 2007 ). Interventions in the area of self-regulation have shown positive effects for reading achievement ( Best et al., 2011 ; Bierman et al., 2008a ; Blair and Diamond, 2008 ; Blair and Razza, 2007 ; Diamond and Lee, 2011 ). Among struggling first graders in an effective reading intervention, those who were retained in grade showed significantly weaker self-regulation skills ( Dombek and Connor, 2012 ). Cognitive self-regulation appears to be strongly associated with academic learning ( Willoughby et al., 2011 ), but emotional self-regulation also contributes through children's adjustment to school and attitudes toward learning. In addition, both cognitive and emotional self-regulation contribute to variance in attention, competence motivation, and persistence ( Bassett et al., 2012 ; Willoughby et al., 2011 ).

In addition, differences in self-regulation competencies raise important issues related to disparities in educational achievement. Children in poverty can have lower self-regulation competencies (e.g., Blair and Razza, 2007 ; Blair et al., 2010 ; Bull and Scerif, 2001 ; Hackman and Farah, 2009 ; Jenks et al., 2012 ; Kishiyama et al., 2009 ; Masten et al., 2012 ; Mazzocco and Hanich, 2010 ; McLean and Hitch, 1999 ; Raver, 2013 ). One reason is the effect of chronic stress on behavioral and biological capacities for self-control (see discussion of chronic stress and adversity later in this chapter). This risk is exacerbated for children who are also dual language learners ( Wanless et al., 2011 ). Students with special needs are another population who may require focused interventions to develop self-regulation competencies ( Harris et al., 2005 ; Jenks et al., 2012 ; Lyon and Krasnegor, 1996 ; Mazzocco and Hanich, 2010 ; McLean and Hitch, 1999 ; Raches and Mazzocco, 2012 ; Toll et al., 2010 ; Zelazo et al., 2002 ). Students who are gifted and talented may also have exceptional needs in this domain (e.g., Mooji, 2010 ).

Adults who work with children have the opportunity to provide environments, experiences, and curricula that can help develop the competencies needed, including for children whose skills were not optimally developed in the earliest years. Importantly, the goal of such interventions is not to “train” children to suppress behaviors and follow rules. Rather, effective educators and programs provide learning activities and environments that increase children's capacity and disposition to set a goal (e.g., join a pretend play activity, complete a puzzle); develop a plan or strategy; and muster their social, emotional, and cognitive faculties to execute that plan. The science of how children develop and learn indicates that integrating academic learning and self-regulation is a sound approach.

Executive Functions and Learning in Specific Subjects

As already noted and shown in several examples, executive function processes are closely related to achievement in both language and literacy and mathematics ( Best et al., 2011 ; Blair and Razza, 2007 ; Blair et al., 2010 ; Neuenschwander et al., 2012 ), and this has also been shown in science ( Nayfeld et al., 2013 ). In some research, executive function has been correlated similarly with both reading and mathematics achievement across a wide age span (5 to 17 years), suggesting its significant role in academic learning ( Best et al., 2011 ; Blair and Razza, 2007 ; Neuenschwander et al., 2012 ). In contrast, some studies have found that executive function is more strongly associated with mathematics than with literacy or language ( Barata, 2010 ; Blair et al., 2010 ; Ponitz et al., 2009 ; von Suchodoletz and Gunzenhauser, 2013 ). A strong relationship between executive function and mathematics may reflect that mathematics relies heavily on working memory and attention control, requiring the ability to inhibit an automatic response to a single aspect of a problem, to hold relevant information in mind, and to operate on it while shifting attention appropriately among different elements of a problem ( Welsh et al., 2010 ). This relationship is especially important given that mathematics curricula increasingly require higher-order skills, which executive function competencies provides ( Baker et al., 2010 ).

Some research indicates that most executive function competencies correlate significantly with mathematics achievement ( Bull and Scerif, 2001 ), while other studies suggest a greater role for particular executive function competencies in the learning of mathematics for young children—especially inhibitory control ( Blair and Razza, 2007 ) or working memory ( Bull et al., 2008 ; Geary, 2011 ; see also, Geary et al., 2012 ; cf. Neuenschwander et al., 2012 ; Szűcs et al., 2014 ; Van der Ven et al., 2012 ). These latter two competencies have been shown to predict success in mathematics in primary school students ( Toll et al., 2010 ). Working memory tasks have also been shown to predict mathematics learning disabilities, even more so than early mathematical abilities ( Toll et al., 2010 ). Several studies have identified lack of inhibition and working memory as specific deficits for children of lower mathematical ability, resulting in difficulty with switching to and evaluating new strategies for dealing with a particular task ( Bull and Scerif [2001] and Lan and colleagues [2011] found similar results). Persistence, another learning skill that is interrelated with cognitive processes, also has been linked to mathematics achievement for both 3- and 4-year-olds ( Maier and Greenfield, 2008 ).

Executive function competencies may be differentially associated with distinct areas of mathematics. For example, executive function was found to be correlated more with solving word problems than with calculation ( Best et al., 2011 ), and appears to play a role in acquiring new mathematics procedures and developing automatic access to arithmetic facts ( LeFevre et al., 2013 ). Different aspects of working memory also may be related to different mathematical areas ( Simmons et al., 2012 ). Parallel observations have been made for executive function and reading, with executive function playing a larger role in reading comprehension than in decoding.

In addition to the role of executive function in learning mathematics, mathematics activities also contribute to developing executive function. Some mathematics activities may require children to suppress prepotent responses, manipulate abstract information, and remain cognitively flexible. Importantly, neuroimaging studies suggest that executive function may be developed through learning mathematics in challenging activities but not in exercising mathematics once learned ( Ansari et al., 2005 ; Butterworth et al., 2011 ).

Cognitive Skills and Executive Function in Children with Special Needs

Some students with special needs may have a specific lack of certain executive function competencies ( Harris et al., 2005 ; Jenks et al., 2012 ; Lyon and Krasnegor, 1996 ; McLean and Hitch, 1999 ; Raches and Mazzocco, 2012 ; Schoemaker et al., 2014 ; Toll et al., 2010 ; Zelazo et al., 2002 ). Most of the research on executive function deficits in relation to disabilities that affect young children has focused on specific disorders, particularly attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). An early theory posited that ADHD is a lack of the behavioral inhibition required for proficiency with executive functions such as self-regulation of affect, motivation, and arousal; working memory; and synthesis analysis of internally represented information ( Barkley, 1997 ). Research has found that children diagnosed with ADHD are more likely than children without ADHD to have two or more deficits in executive function ( Biederman et al., 2004 ; cf. Shuai et al., 2011 ). A meta-analysis of studies of one measure of executive function, the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, suggests that the performance of individuals with ADHD is fairly consistently poorer than that of individuals without clinical diagnoses ( Romine et al., 2004 ). In another study, children with ADHD were found not to have learning problems but rather problems in a measure of inhibitory control, which affected arithmetic calculation (as well as written language) ( Semrud-Clikeman, 2012 ). Other evidence suggests that children diagnosed with ADHD may have deficits not in executive processes themselves but in motivation or response to contingencies, that is, the regulation of effort allocation ( Huang-Pollock et al., 2012 ).

Having ADHD with deficits in executive function, compared to ADHD alone, is associated with an increased risk for grade retention and a decrease in academic achievement ( Biederman et al., 2004 ). The relationship between ADHD and executive functions may also depend on subtype. One study found that children with an inattention ADHD subtype showed deficits in several executive function competencies ( Tymms and Merrell, 2011 ), whereas children with the hyperactive-impulsive ADHD subtype may have fewer executive function deficits ( Shuai et al., 2011 ) and may even have strengths that could be developed in appropriate educational environments.

Deficits in executive function have been studied in other developmental disorders as well, albeit often in less detail. They include autism ( Bühler et al., 2011 ; Hill, 2004 ; Zelazo et al., 2002 ); attention and disruptive behavior problems ( Fahie and Symons, 2003 ; Hughes and Ensor, 2011 ); intellectual disabilities ( Nader-Grosbois and Lefèvre, 2011 ; Neece et al., 2011 ; Vieillevoye and Nader-Grosbois, 2008 ); cerebral palsy ( Jenks et al., 2012 ); Turner syndrome ( Mazzocco and Hanich, 2010 ); developmental dyslexia ( Brosnan et al., 2002 ; cf. Romine and Reynolds, 2005 ); and mathematics learning disabilities ( Toll et al., 2010 ).

Other Learning Skills and Dispositions

Other learning skills that are important to early academic achievement include persistence, curiosity, self-confidence, intrinsic motivation, time perspective (e.g., the willingness to prioritize long-term goals over immediate gratifications), and self-control. The growth of emotional and cognitive self-regulation is also fundamentally related to many of these developing learning skills. In addition, social experiences, discussed later in this chapter, are important for the growth of these learning skills. Note also that although these skills are referred to sometimes as dispositions, they are fostered through early experience and can be supported through intentional caregiving and instructional practices; they are not simply intrinsic traits in the child.

A capacity for focused engagement in learning is apparent from very early in life, although it is also true that these learning competencies develop significantly throughout early childhood as processes of neurobiological development interact with children's social experiences to enable greater persistence, focused attention, delayed gratification, and other components of effective learning and problem solving. As a consequence, very young children are likely to approach new learning situations with enthusiasm and self-confidence but at young ages may not necessarily bring persistence or creativity in confronting and solving challenging problems. Older preschoolers, by contrast, are more self-regulated learners. They approach new learning opportunities with initiative and involvement, and they are more persistent and more likely to solve problems creatively, by proposing their own ideas ( NRC, 2001 ).

Considerable research confirms the importance of these skills to early learning. Individual differences in infants' “mastery motivation” skills—persistence, focus, and curiosity in exploration and problem solving—predict later cognitive abilities and achievement motivation ( Busch-Rossnagel, 2005 ; Morgan et al., 1990 ; Wang and Barrett, 2013 ). In preschool-age children, learning skills that include motivation, engagement, and interest in learning activities have been found in longitudinal studies to predict children's cognitive skills at school entry ( Duncan et al., 2005 , 2007 ). Similarly, these characteristics continue to be associated with reading and mathematics achievement in the early elementary grades ( Alexander et al., 1993 ). Differences in these learning skills are especially associated with academic achievement for children in circumstances of economic disadvantage who face various kinds of self-regulatory challenges ( Blair and Raver, 2012 ; Howse et al., 2003a ).

Much of school success requires that children prioritize longer-term rewards requiring current effort over immediate satisfactions. The classic demonstration of this skill comes from a series of studies led by Walter Mischel beginning in the 1960s. Young children were offered the option of choosing an immediate, smaller reward or a larger reward if they waited to receive it later. For several years developmental outcomes for these children were tracked, which revealed that children who were better able to delay gratification at age 4 scored higher on measures of language skills, academic achievement, planful behaviors, self-reliance, capacity to cope with stress and frustration, and social competence measured in adolescence and adulthood ( Mischel et al., 1988 ). Other studies have reported consistent findings. Early development in the ability to prioritize future, long-term goals over short-term lesser gains improves children's chances of academic achievement and securing and maintaining employment ( Rachlin, 2000 ). Conversely, the inability to delay gratification is associated with young children's aggressive behavior, conduct problems, poorer peer relationships, and academic difficulty during preschool and the transition to elementary school ( Olson and Hoza, 1993 ) as well as later outcomes, including academic failure, delinquency, and substance abuse in adolescence ( Lynam et al., 1993 ; Wulfert et al., 2002 ).

The ways that children view themselves as learners are also important. Young children's self-perceived capability to master learning challenges develops early and exerts a continuing influence on their academic success. Early self-evaluations of competence are based on the positive and negative evaluations of children's behavior and competence by parents ( Stipek et al., 1992 ). Parent and educator expectations for children's success remain important. High parent expectations for children's school achievement are associated with children's later academic performance, and this is also true of educator expectations. In one longitudinal study, teacher expectations for children's math achievement in grades 1 and 3 directly predicted children's scores on standardized achievement tests 2 years later, and expectations for reading achievement had indirect associations with later reading scores. There was also evidence in this study that expectations were especially influential for academically at-risk students ( Hinnant et al., 2009 ).

Messages from parents and educators are also important in shaping how children attribute their own success and failure which, in turn, predicts their future effort and expectations of success. Children develop implicit theories in the early years about who they are as a person and what it means to be intelligent. Some children come to view intelligence as a fixed trait (i.e., one is either smart or not), whereas others see it as a more malleable trait that can be changed through effort and persistence. Educators and parents who approach learning goals by promoting and rewarding effort, persistence, and willingness to take on challenging problems increase children's motivation and their endorsement of effort as a path to success. In contrast, children receiving messages that intelligence is stable and cannot be improved through hard work are discouraged from pursuing difficult tasks, particularly if they view their abilities as low ( Heyman and Dweck, 1992 ). These patterns of “helpless” versus “mastery-oriented” motivation are learned in the preschool years and remain stable over time ( Smiley and Dweck, 1994 ).

These perceptions and patterns of motivation can be especially significant as children learn academic subjects, such as mathematics ( Clements and Sarama, 2012 ). People in the United States have many negative beliefs and attitudes about mathematics ( Ashcraft, 2006 ). One deeply embedded cultural belief is that achievement in mathematics depends mainly on native aptitude or ability rather than effort. Research shows that the belief in the primacy of native ability hurts students and, further, it is simply untrue.

Throughout their school careers, students who believe—or are helped to understand—that they can learn if they try working longer on tasks have better achievement than those who believe that either one “has it” (or “gets it”) or does not ( McLeod and Adams, 1989 ; Weiner, 1986 ). Researchers have estimated that students should be successful about 70 percent of the time to maximize motivation ( Middleton and Spanias, 1999 ). If students are directly assured that working hard to figure out problems, including making errors and being frustrated, are part of the learning process it can diminish feelings of embarrassment and other negative emotions at being incorrect. In contrast, students' learning can be impeded if educators define success only as rapid, correct responses and accuracy only as following the educator's example ( Middleton and Spanias, 1999 ). In addition, students will build positive feelings about mathematics if they experience it as a sense-making activity. Most young students are motivated to explore numbers and shapes and have positive feelings about mathematics ( Middleton and Spanias, 1999 ). However, after only a couple of years in typical schools, they begin to believe that only some people have the ability to do math.

A related pattern relating perceptions and emotions to learning is seen with students who experience mathematics anxiety. Primary grade students who have strong math anxiety, even alongside strong working memory, have been found to have lower mathematics achievement because working memory capacity is co-opted by math anxiety ( Beilock, 2001 ; Ramirez et al., 2013 ). Research has shown that primary grade students who “feel panicky” about math have increased activity in brain regions that are associated with fear, which decreases activity in brain regions associated with problem solving ( Young et al., 2012 ). Early identification and treatment of math anxiety may prevent children with high potential from avoiding mathematics and mathematics courses ( Ramirez et al., 2013 ).

  • SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

The development of social and emotional competence is an important part of child development and early learning. Socioemotional competence has been described as a multidimensional construct that contributes to the ability to understand and manage emotions and behavior; to make decisions and achieve goals; and to establish and maintain positive relationships, including feeling and showing empathy for others. Although their importance is widely recognized, universal agreement is lacking on how to categorize and define these areas of development. The Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning offers a summary construct with five interrelated groups of competencies that together encompass the areas typically considered to be part of socioemotional competence (see Figure 4-2 ).

Elements of socioemotional competence. SOURCE: Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (http://www.casel.org/social-and-emotional-learning/core-competencies, accessed March 24, 2015).

Socioemotional competence increasingly is viewed as important for a child's early school adjustment and for academic success at both the preschool and K-12 levels ( Bierman et al., 2008a , b ; Denham and Brown, 2010 ; Heckman et al., 2013 ; La Paro and Pianta, 2000 ; Leerkes et al., 2008 ). A growing body of research addresses the relationship between dimensions of socioemotional competence and cognitive and other skills related to early learning and later academic achievement ( Bierman et al., 2008a , b ; Graziano et al., 2007 ; Howse et al., 2003b ; Miller et al., 2006 ). Socioemotional development early in life also increasingly is understood to be critically important for later mental well-being, and for contributing to subsequent mental health problems when there are enduring disturbances in socioemotional functions ( IOM and NRC, 2009 ; Leckman and March, 2011 ).

There are several reasons why socioemotional development is important to early learning and academic success. As discussed in detail later in this section, early learning is a social activity in which these skills are important to the interactions through which learning occurs and is collaboratively shared. Socioemotional competence gives children the capacity to engage in academic tasks by increasing their ability to interact constructively with teachers, work collaboratively with and learn from peers, and dedicate sustained attention to learning ( Denham and Brown, 2010 ). Further, behavioral and emotional problems not only impede early learning but also pose other risks to long-term success. Substantial research has examined the relationship between delays and deficits in children's social skills and challenging behavior, such as serious problems getting along with peers or cooperating with educators ( Zins et al., 2007 ). When challenging behavior is not resolved during the early years, children with persistent early socioemotional difficulties experience problems in socialization, school adjustment, school success, and educational and vocational adaptation in adolescence and adulthood (e.g., Dunlap et al., 2006 ; Lane et al., 2008 ; Nelson et al., 2004 ). Thus attention to socioemotional competence also is important from the perspective of addressing early emerging behavior problems before they become more serious.

A variety of evidence-based approaches can be implemented to strengthen socioemotional competence for young children ( Domitrovich et al., 2012 ; IOM and NRC, 2009 ). These approaches typically entail strategies designed to improve children's emotion identification and understanding combined with the development of social problem-solving skills; practice in simple emotion regulation strategies; and coaching in prosocial behavior through strategies that can involve role playing, modeling, and reinforcement of socially competent behavior. Importantly, as discussed further in Chapter 6 , these strategies can be incorporated into daily classroom practice to provide children with everyday socioemotional learning.

Relational Security and Emotional Well-Being

As noted earlier in the discussion of self-regulation, socioemotional competencies contribute to the development of relationships with parents, educators, and peers. The development of positive relationships enables young children to participate constructively in learning experiences that are inherently social. The emotional support and security provided by positive relationships contributes in multifaceted ways to young children's learning success. Research on the security of attachment between young children and their parents illustrates this point, and provides a basis for considering the nature of children's relationships with educators and peers.

A secure parent–child attachment is widely recognized as foundational for healthy development, and the evolving understanding of the importance of attachment encompasses research in developmental psychology and developmental neuroscience (as discussed in Chapter 3 ) ( Schore and Schore, 2008 ; Thompson, 2013 ). Research has shown that securely attached children receive more sensitively responsive parental care, and in turn develop greater social skills with adults and peers and greater social and emotional understanding of others, show more advanced moral development, and have a more positive self-concept (see Thompson, 2013 , for a review). Securely attached children also have been found to be more advanced in cognitive and language development and to show greater achievement in school ( de Ruiter and van IJzendoorn, 1993 ; van Ijzendoorn et al., 1995 ; West et al., 2013 ). This association has been found for infants, preschool-age children, and older children, suggesting that it is fairly robust.

Most researchers believe that the association between attachment security and cognitive competence derives not from a direct link between the two, but from a number of processes mediating a secure attachment and the development of cognitive and language skills ( O'Connor and McCartney, 2007 ). The mediators that have been studied include the following:

  • Early confidence and competence at exploration—One of the functions of a secure attachment is to enable infants and young children to better explore the environment, confident in the caregiver's support and responsiveness if things go awry. An extensive research literature, focused primarily on young children, confirms this expectation ( van Ijzendoorn et al., 1995 ). Early in life, exploratory interest is likely to lead to new discoveries and learning.
  • Maternal instruction and guidance—Consistent with the sensitivity that initially contributes to a secure attachment, considerable research has shown that the mothers of securely attached children continue to respond supportively in ways that promote the child's social and cognitive achievements ( Thompson, in press) . In particular, these mothers talk more elaboratively with their children in ways that foster the children's deeper understanding and in so doing help support the children's cognitive growth ( Fivush et al., 2006 ). Furthermore, increased mother–child conversation is likely to foster the child's linguistic skills.
  • Children's social competence with adults and peers—Securely attached children develop enhanced social skills and social understanding that enhance their competence in interactions with peers and adults in learning environments. In this light, their greater cognitive and language competencies may derive, at least in part, from more successful interactions with social partners in learning contexts. (See the detailed discussion of social interaction as a forum for cognitive growth later in this section.)
  • Self-regulatory competence—Several studies suggest that securely attached children are more skilled in the preschool and early grade school years at self-regulation, especially as it is manifested in greater social competence and emotion regulation. Self-regulatory competence also may extend to children's greater attentional focus, cognitive self-control, and persistence in learning situations. In one recent report, the association of attachment security with measures of school engagement in the early primary grades was mediated by differences in children's social self-control; attentional impulsivity also varied with the security of attachment ( Drake et al., 2014 ; Thompson, 2013 ).
  • Stress management—One of the functions of a secure attachment is that it supports the social buffering of stress by providing children with an adult who regularly assists them in challenging circumstances. The social buffering of stress may be an especially important aspect of how a secure attachment contributes to cognitive competence for children in disadvantaged circumstances when stress is likely to be chronic and potentially overwhelming (see Gunnar and Donzella, 2002 , for a review; Nachmias et al., 1996 ) (see also the discussion of chronic stress and adversity later in this chapter).

In addition to the substantial research on parent–child attachment and the development of cognitive competence, a smaller but significant research literature focuses on the development of attachments between children and educators and how those attachments contribute to children's success in structured learning environments (e.g., Ahnert et al., 2006 ; Birch and Ladd, 1998 ; Howes and Hamilton, 1992 ; Howes et al., 1998 ; Ladd et al., 1999 ; Mitchell-Copeland et al., 1997 ; Pianta and Stuhlman, 2004a , b ). In some respects, the processes connecting children's learning achievement with the supportive, secure relationships they develop with educators are similar to those observed with parent–child attachments. As with their parents and other caregivers, children develop attachments to their educators, and the quality of those relationships has a significant and potentially enduring influence on their classroom success ( Hamre and Pianta, 2001 ). Secure, warm relationships with educators facilitate young children's self-confidence when learning and assist in their self-regulatory competence, and there is evidence that children with such relationships in the classroom learn more than those who have more difficult relationships with educators ( NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2003 ; Pianta and Stuhlman, 2004b ).

In one study, preschoolers identified as academically at risk based on demographic characteristics and reports of problems by their kindergarten teachers were followed to the end of first grade ( Hamre and Pianta, 2005 ). The children with first-grade teachers who provided high amounts of instructional and emotional support had achievement scores comparable to those of their low-risk peers. Support was measured by teacher behaviors such as verbal comments promoting effort, persistence, and mastery; conversations using open-ended questions; encouragement of child responsibility; sensitivity; and a positive classroom climate. O'Connor and McCartney (2007) likewise found that positive educator–child relationships from preschool through third grade were associated with higher third-grade achievement, and that much of this achievement derived from how positive relationships promoted children's classroom engagement.

Positive educator–child relationships are especially important during the transition to school, when children's initial expectations about school and adjustment to its social demands take shape ( Ladd et al., 1999 ; Silver et al., 2005 ). Children who develop more positive relationships with their teachers in kindergarten are more positive about attending school, more excited about learning, and more self-confident. In the classroom they achieve more compared with children who experience more conflicted or troubled relationships with their teachers ( Birch and Ladd, 1997 ; NICHD Early Child Care Research Network, 2003 ; Pianta and Stuhlman, 2004b ). A positive relationship with educators may be especially important for children who are at risk of academic difficulty because such a relationship can provide support for self-confidence and classroom involvement ( Pianta et al., 1995 ).

A similar association is seen for peer relationships. Children who experience greater friendship and peer acceptance tend to feel more positive about coming to school, participate more in activities in the classroom, and achieve more in kindergarten ( Ladd et al., 1996 , 1997 ). Peer rejection is associated with less classroom participation, poorer academic performance, and a desire to avoid school ( Buhs and Ladd, 2001 ).

Taken together, research documenting the association between the security of attachment and the development of cognitive and language competence, as well as the stronger academic performance of securely attached children, highlights the multiple ways in which supportive relationships contribute to early learning. In particular, such relationships with parents, educators, and even peers provide immediate support that helps children focus their energies on learning opportunities, and they also foster the development of social and cognitive skills that children enlist in learning.

Emotion Regulation and Self-Management

Another element of socioemotional competence, touched on earlier in the section on general learning competencies, is self-regulation of emotion, or emotion regulation, which can affect learning behaviors and relationships with adults and peers. As noted in that earlier discussion, emotion regulation is closely intertwined with cognitive self-regulation and executive function. Emotion regulation processes include emotional and motivational responses to situations involving risk and reward (e.g., Kerr and Zelazo, 2004 ). They are frequently inhibitory; that is, they include the ability to suppress one response (e.g., grabbing a toy from another) so as to respond in a better way (asking for or sharing the toy). The development of emotion regulation and other forms of self-management in the early years is based on slowly maturing regions of the prefrontal cortex that continue to develop throughout adolescence and even early adulthood. Thus, early learners are maturationally challenged to manage their attention, emotions, and behavioral impulses effectively in a care setting or classroom.

Because they have difficulty cooperating or resolving conflicts successfully, children who lack effective self-regulation do not participate in a productive way in classroom activities—including learning activities ( Broidy et al., 2003 ; Ladd et al., 1999 ; Saarni et al., 1998 ). Children with poor emotion regulation skills may act disruptively and aggressively; they then receive less support from their peers, which in turn may undermine their learning ( Valiente et al., 2011 ). Poor emotion regulation also diminishes positive educator–child interactions, which, as discussed in the previous section, has been shown to predict poor academic performance and behavior problems ( Hamre and Pianta, 2001 ; Neuenschwander et al., 2012 ; Raver and Knitzer, 2002 ).

Coupled with joint attention and delay of gratification, self-regulation skills are linked to social competence and ease the transition to kindergarten ( Huffman et al., 2000 ; McIntyre et al., 2006 ). Children with difficulty regulating emotion in preschool and kindergarten often display inappropriate behavior, fail to pay attention (affecting whether they recall and process information), and have difficulty following instructions, all of which contribute to learning problems ( Eisenberg et al., 2010 ). Unfortunately, these difficulties tend to be common in preschool and kindergarten. They are an important determinant of whether educators and parents regard young children as “ready for school” ( Rimm-Kaufman et al., 2000 ).

Some researchers also suggest that emotion regulation in preschool and kindergarten serves as an early indicator of later academic success ( Graziano et al., 2007 ; Howse et al., 2003b ; Trentacosta and Izard, 2007 ). In preschool, McClelland and colleagues (2007) found not only that emotion regulation predicted early skills in literacy and mathematics but also that growth in emotion regulation in 4-year-olds over a 1-year period was linked to greater gains in literacy, vocabulary, and math compared with children showing less growth. Reading disability and problem behavior may be a “chicken or egg” problem: students who have behavior problems in first grade are more likely to have reading difficulties in third grade and students who have reading difficulties in first grade are more likely to exhibit behavior problems in third grade ( Morgan et al., 2008 ). Thus a particularly effective learning environment may be one that provides both effective reading instruction and support for behavioral self-regulation ( Connor et al., 2014 ).

Young children are better enabled to exercise self-regulation in the company of educators who have developmentally appropriate expectations for their self-control, provide predictable routines, and offer guidance that scaffolds their developing skills of self-management, especially in the context of carefully designed daily practices in a well-organized setting ( Bodrova and Leong, 2012 ). Indeed, in an intervention for academically at-risk young children, the Chicago School Readiness Project gave Head Start teachers specialized training at the beginning of the year in classroom management strategies to help lower-income preschoolers better regulate their own behavior. At the end of the school year, these children showed less impulsiveness, fewer disruptive behaviors, and better academic performance compared with children in classrooms with teachers who received a different training regimen ( Raver et al., 2009 , 2011 ).

Conclusion About the Ability to Self-Regulate The ability to self-regulate both emotion and cognitive processes is important for learning and academic achievement, affecting children's thinking, motivation, self-control, and social interactions. Children's progress in this ability from birth through age 8 is influenced by the extent to which relationships with adults, learning environments, and learning experiences support this set of skills, and their progress can be impaired by stressful and adverse circumstances.

Social and Emotional Understanding

As described earlier in this chapter, even infants and toddlers have an implicit theory of mind for understanding how certain mental states are associated with people's behavior. From their simple and straightforward awareness that people act intentionally and are goal directed; that people have positive and negative feelings in response to things around them; and that people have different perceptions, goals, and feelings, young children develop increasingly sophisticated understanding of the mental experiences that cause people to act as they do ( Wellman, 2011 ). They realize, for example, that people's beliefs about reality can be accurate or may be mistaken, and this realization leads to their understanding that people can be deceived, that the child's own thoughts and feelings need not be disclosed, and that not everybody can be believed ( Lee, 2013 ; Mills, 2013 ). They appreciate that people's thinking may be biased by expectations, prior experiences, and desires that cause them to interpret the same situation in very different ways ( Lalonde and Chandler, 2002 ). They also begin to appreciate how personality differences among people can cause different individuals to act in the same situation in very different ways ( Heyman and Gelman, 1999 ).

These remarkable advances in social understanding are important to children's developing socioemotional skills for interacting with educators and peers. These advances also are fostered by children's classroom experiences. Children learn about how people think and feel from directly observing; asking questions; and conversing about people's mental states with trusted informants, such as parents ( Bartsch and Wellman, 1995 ; Dunn, 2002 ; Thompson et al., 2003 ). Similarly, interactions with educators and peers provide young children with apt lessons in mutual understanding and perspective taking, cooperation, conflict management, personality differences and similarities, and emotional understanding in an environment where these skills are developing. This is especially so when educators can use children's experiences as forums for developing social and emotional understanding, such as when they explain why peers are feeling the way they do, suggest strategies for resolving conflict over resources or a point of view, or involve children in collective decision making involving different opinions.

Self-Awareness and Early Learning

How young children think of themselves as learners, and in particular their self-perceived efficacy in mastering new understanding, is an early developing and continuously important influence on their academic success. Young children become increasingly sensitive to the positive and negative evaluations of their behavior by parents, which serve as the basis for their self-evaluations ( Stipek et al., 1992 ). In one study, mothers who provided positive evaluations, gentle guidance, and corrective feedback during teaching tasks with their 2-year-olds had children who, 1 year later, were more persistent and less likely to avoid difficult challenges. By contrast, mothers who were intrusively controlling of their toddlers had children who, 1 year later, responded with shame when they had difficulty ( Kelley et al., 2000 ). Gunderson and colleagues (2013) found that 14- to 38-month-old children whose parents praised their efforts during unstructured home observations were more likely, as third graders, to believe that abilities are malleable and can be improved.

An extensive research literature documents the effects of parents' and educators' performance feedback on children's self-concept and motivation to succeed. Most of this research was conducted with older children and adolescents because of their more sophisticated understanding of differences in ability (see Wigfield et al., 2006 , for a review); however, preschoolers and early primary grade students are also sensitive to success and failure and to their imputed causes. In a study by Cimpian and colleagues (2007) , for example, 4-year-old children were represented by puppets whose performance was praised by a teacher using either generic feedback (“You are a good drawer.”) to imply trait-based (ability-centered) success or nongeneric feedback (“You did a good job drawing.”) to imply situation-based (effort-centered) success. The children did not differ in their self-evaluations after hearing praise of either kind, but when their puppet subsequently made a mistake and was criticized for it, the 4-year-olds who had heard generic feedback evaluated their performance and the situation more negatively than did children hearing nongeneric feedback, suggesting that they interpreted criticism as reflecting deficits in their ability. Similar results have been reported with kindergarteners by Kamins and Dweck (1999) and by Zentall and Morris (2010) , with the latter indicating that task persistence as well as self-evaluation were strengthened by the use of nongeneric performance feedback.

Parent and educator expectations for children's academic success also are important influences. High parental expectations for children's school achievement are associated with children's later academic performance, and this association often is mediated by the greater involvement of parents in the preschool or school program and other practices that support children's school success ( Baroody and Dobbs-Oates, 2009 ; Englund et al., 2004 ; Mantzicopoulos, 1997 ). The role of educator expectations in children's success is illustrated by a longitudinal study in which teacher expectations for children's math achievement in grades 1 and 3 directly predicted children's scores on standardized achievement tests 2 years later; teacher expectations for reading achievement had indirect associations with later reading scores. The results of this study also suggest that teacher expectations were especially influential for academically at-risk students ( Hinnant et al., 2009 ).

Social Interaction as a Forum for Cognitive Growth

A wider perspective on the importance of socioemotional skills for academic success is gained by considering the importance of social experiences for early learning. Contemporary research has led developmental scientists to understand the mind's development as deriving jointly from the child's naturally inquisitive activity and the catalysts of social experience. Sometimes these social experiences are in formal teaching and other pedagogical experiences, but often they take the form of adults and children sharing in activities that provide the basis for early learning, in a kind of “guided participation” (e.g., Rogoff, 1991 ). These activities can be as simple as the one-sided “conversation” parents have with their infant or toddler from which language skills develop, or the shared sorting of laundry into piles of similar color, or labeling of another child's feelings during an episode of peer conflict. In short, considerable early learning occurs in the course of a young child's ordinary interactions with a responsive adult.

Social experiences provide emotional security and support that enables learning and can also contribute to the development of language, number skills, problem solving, and other cognitive and learning skills that are foundational for school readiness and academic achievement. Through their interactions with children, adults provide essential stimulation that provides rapidly developing mental processes with catalysts that provoke further learning. Conversely, the lack of these catalysts contributes to learning disparities by the time that children become preschoolers. These processes are well illustrated by considering the growth of language and literacy skills and of mathematical understanding.

It is difficult to think of any child developing language apart from social interactions with others. As discussed earlier in this chapter, variability in these experiences, beginning in infancy, helps account for socioeconomic disparities in language and mathematical skills that are apparent by the time children enter school. In a widely cited study, Hart and Risley (1995) recorded 1 hour of naturally occurring speech in the homes of 42 families at monthly intervals beginning when children were 7-9 months old and continuing until they turned 3 years. They found that by age 3, children living in the most socioeconomically advantaged families had a working vocabulary that was more than twice the size of that of children growing up in the most disadvantaged families. The latter group of children also was adding words more slowly than their advantaged counterparts. The differences in children's vocabulary size were associated, in part, with how many words were spoken to them during the home observations, with a much richer linguistic environment being characteristic of the most advantaged homes. In addition, words were used in functionally different ways, with a much higher ratio of affirmative-to-prohibitive language being used in the most advantaged homes and a much lower ratio (i.e., below 1) being characteristic of the most disadvantaged homes. Differences in the language environment in which children grew up were, in other words, qualitative as well as quantitative in nature. Further research with a subset of 29 families in this sample showed that 3-year-olds' vocabulary size significantly predicted their scores on standardized tests of language skill in third grade ( Hart and Risley, 1995 ).

A later study by Fernald and colleagues (2013) confirms and extends these findings. A sample of 48 English-learning infants from families varying in socioeconomic status was followed from 18 to 24 months. At 18 months, significant differences between infants from higher- and lower-income families were already seen in vocabulary size and in real-time language processing efficiency. By 24 months, a 6-month gap was found between the two groups in processing skills related to language development. A companion study by Weisleder and Fernald (2013) with 29 lower-income Spanish-speaking families found that infants who experienced more child-directed speech at 19 months had larger vocabularies and greater language processing efficiency at 24 months. But adult speech that was simply overheard by infants (i.e., not child directed) at 19 months had no association with later language ( Schneidman et al., 2013 ). These studies indicate that child-directed speech, and perhaps the social interaction that accompanies it, is what strengthens infants' language processing efficiency. As in the Hart and Risley (1995) study, differences in family language environments were both qualitative and quantitative in nature. These findings are important in light of the association between the socioeconomic status of children's families and their language skills ( Bradley and Corwyn, 2002 ).

The findings of these studies are consistent with those of studies of the social experiences in and outside the home that promote language learning in early childhood. (See also the section on language and literacy under “Learning Specific Subjects” earlier in this chapter.) According to one longitudinal study, language and literacy skills in kindergarten were predicted by several aspects of the language environment at home and in classrooms in the preschool years. The characteristics of adult language that stimulated young children's language development included adult use of varied vocabulary during conversations with children; extended discourse on a single topic (rather than frequent topic switching); and diversity of language-related activities, including storybook reading, conversation related to children's experiences and interests, language corrections, and pretend play ( Dickinson, 2003 ; Dickinson and Porche, 2011 ; Dickinson and Tabors, 2001 ). These elements of the early childhood social environment predicted both kindergarten language skills and fourth-grade language and reading abilities. Other studies show that extensive use of descriptive language (e.g., labeling and commenting on people's actions) related to the child's current experience contributes to the quality of children's language development. Shared storybook reading also has been found to enhance the language skills of young children in lower-income homes ( Raikes et al., 2006 ). Stated differently, what matters is not just how much language young children are exposed to but the social and emotional contexts of language shared with an adult.

Language and literacy development is a major focus of instruction in prekindergarten and K-3 classrooms, and the instructional strategies used by teachers are both more formal and more sophisticated than those used in early childhood classrooms. Duke and Block (2012) have noted that in primary grade classrooms, vocabulary, reading comprehension, and conceptual and content knowledge are not adequately emphasized. The practices that would enhance early reading skills are embedded in children's social experiences with educators and peers in the classroom. They involve children interacting with partners throughout reading activity, and teachers explaining and discussing vocabulary terms and encouraging children to make personal connections with the concepts in the text.

Number Concepts and Mathematics

Language and literacy skills are the best-studied area in which early social experiences are influential, but they are not the only skills for which social interactions are important. Social experiences also are important for mathematics, such as for developing an understanding of numbers as well as early number and spatial/geometric language. Infants have an approximate number system that enables them to distinguish different quantities provided that the numerical ratio between them is not small, and this discrimination ability improves with increasing age (see Box 4-5 earlier in this chapter). There is some evidence that early individual differences in this ability are consistent during the first year and predict later mathematical abilities, although the reason for this remains unclear ( Libertus and Brannon, 2010 ; Starr et al., 2013 ). Toddlers also are beginning to comprehend certain number principles, such as one-to-one correspondence ( Slaughter et al., 2011 ). How adults talk about number is important. In one study, everyday parent–child discourse was recorded for 90 minutes every 4 months when the child was between 14 and 30 months old. The amount of parents' spontaneous “number talk” in these conversations (e.g., counting objects, references to time) was predictive of children's cardinal number knowledge (i.e., the knowledge that “four” refers to sets with four items) at 46 months ( Levine et al., 2010 ). Particularly important was when parents counted or labeled fairly large sets of objects within the child's view, providing concrete referents for parent–child interaction over number ( Gunderson and Levine, 2011 ).

Klibanoff and colleagues (2006) found that in early childhood, teachers' “math language”—that is, the frequency of their verbal references to number and geometric concepts—varied greatly for different teachers, but it significantly predicted progress in preschoolers' mathematical knowledge over the course of the school year. Similarly, another study found that parents' number-related activities at home with their young children were highly variable, but parents who engaged in more of these activities had children with stronger mathematical skill on standardized tests ( Blevins-Knabe and Musun-Miller, 1996 ). These practices in the classroom and at home help explain the significant socioeconomic disparities in number understanding by the time children arrive at school ( Klibanoff et al., 2006 ; Saxe et al., 1987 ). In addition to spoken references to numerical and geometric concepts, adults stimulate developing mathematical understanding when they incorporate these concepts into everyday activities, including games and other kinds of play; prompt children's explanations for numerical inferences; probe their understanding; and relate mathematical ideas to everyday experience ( NRC, 2009 ). Unfortunately, the quality of mathematical instruction is highly variable in preschool and early primary grades (discussed further in Chapter 6 ).

Taken together, these studies suggest the diverse ways in which social experiences provide catalysts for children's developing language and number skills that are the focus of later academic work. In these domains, adult practices provide essential cognitive stimulants beginning in infancy. Similar practices—adapted to young children's developing skills—remain important as children proceed through the primary grades.

Relationships and Early Learning: Implications for Adults

The relationship of an adult to a child—the emotional quality of their interaction, the experiences they have shared, the adult's beliefs about the child's capabilities and characteristics—helps motivate young children's learning, inspire their self-confidence, and provide emotional support to engage them in new learning.

Commonplace interactions provide contexts for supporting the development of cognitive and learning skills and the emotional security in which early learning thrives. Applauding a toddler's physical skills or a second-grader's writing skills, counting together the leaves on the sidewalk or the ingredients of a recipe, interactively reading a book, talking about a sibling's temper tantrum or an episode of classroom peer conflict—these and other shared experiences contribute to young children's cognitive development and early learning.

Conclusion About Socioemotional Development Socioemotional development contributes to the growth of emotional security that enables young children to fully invest themselves in new learning and to the growth of cognitive skills and competencies that are important for learning. These capacities are essential because learning is inherently a social process. Young children's relationships—with parents, teachers, and peers—thus are central to the learning experiences that contribute to their later success.
  • PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND HEALTH

Child development and early learning are closely intertwined with child health. Indeed, each is a foundation for outcomes in the other: health is a foundation for learning, while education is a determinant of health ( Zimmerman and Woolf, 2014 ). The Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University (2010) has described three foundational areas of child health and development that contribute to physical and mental well-being:

  • Stable and responsive relationships—Such relationships provide young children with consistent, nurturing, and protective interactions with adults that enhance their learning and help them develop adaptive capacities that promote well-regulated stress response systems.
  • Safe and supportive physical, chemical, and built environments—Such environments provide physical and emotional spaces that are free from toxins and fear, allow active exploration without significant risk of harm, and offer supports for families raising young children.
  • Sound and appropriate nutrition—Such nutrition includes health-promoting food intake as well as eating habits, beginning with the future mother's nutritional status even before conception.

This section examines interrelated topics of physical development, child health, nutrition, and physical activity and then touches on partnerships between the health and education sectors (also discussed in Chapter 5 ).

Physical Development

Physical development goes hand-in-hand with cognitive development in young children, and progress in one domain often relies on progress in the other. Similar to cognitive development, typical physical development follows a common trajectory among children but with individual differences in the rate of development. A child's physical development encompasses healthy physical growth; the development of sensory systems, including vision and hearing; and development of the ability to use the musculoskeletal system for gross motor skills that involve large body movements as well as fine motor skills that require precision and the controlled production of sound for speaking. Sensory and motor development are critical for both everyday and classroom activities that contribute to cognitive development, early learning, and eventually academic achievement.

Young children's growth in gross and fine motor skills develops throughout the birth through age 8 continuum—early on from holding their head up; rolling over; standing, crawling, and walking; to grasping cereal, picking up blocks, using a fork, tying shoelaces, and writing. A number of recent studies have focused on the relationships among the development of fine and gross motor skills in infants and young children, cognitive development, and school readiness. For example, one study found that students showing deficiencies in fine motor skills exhibited lower math and verbal scores ( Sandler et al., 1992 ), and more recent studies have also shown that fine motor skills were strongly linked to later achievement ( Grissmer et al., 2010a ; Pagani and Messier, 2012 ). Some of the same neural infrastructure in the brain that controls the learning process during motor development are also involved in the control of learning in cognitive development ( Grissmer et al., 2010a ). The evidence of the impact of motor skills on cognitive development and readiness for school calls for a shift in curricula to include activities that focus on fine motor skills, to include the arts, physical education, and play ( Grissmer et al., 2010b ).

Child Health

Health has an important influence on early learning and academic achievement. Hair and colleagues (2006) found that poor health can be as important in contributing to struggles with academic performance in first grade as language and cognitive skills, along with lack of social skills. Not only are healthy children better prepared to learn, but participation in high-quality early childhood programs leads to improved health in adulthood, setting the stage for intergenerational well-being. Data from Head Start and from the Carolina Abecedarian Project indicate that high-quality, intensive interventions can prevent, or at least delay, the onset of physical and emotional problems from adolescence into adulthood ( Campbell et al., 2014 ; Carneiro and Ginja, 2012 ). Data from a national longitudinal survey show that involvement in Head Start was associated with fewer behavior problems and serious health problems, such as 29 percent less obesity in males at 12 and 13 years of age. In addition, Head Start participants had less depression and obesity as adolescents and 31 percent less involvement in criminal activity as young adults. Similarly, long-term follow-up of adults who were enrolled in the Carolina Abecedarian Project revealed that males in their mid-30s in the project had lower rates of hypertension, obesity, and metabolic syndrome than controls. None of the males in the project had metabolic syndrome, compared with 25 percent of the control group. Further analysis of growth parameters indicated that those who were obese in their mid-30s were on that trajectory by 5 years of age, indicating the need for emphasis on healthy nutrition and regular physical activity beginning in early childhood. These studies suggest that the impact of early care and education programs on physical and emotional health is long term.

Sufficient, high-quality dietary intake is necessary for children's health, development, and learning. Support for providing healthy nutrition for children and their families, including pregnant and expectant mothers, is vital. Adequate protein, calories, and nutrients are needed for brain development and function. While the rapid brain growth and development that occurs in infants and toddlers may make children in this age group particularly vulnerable to dietary deficiencies, nutrition remains important as certain brain regions continue to develop through childhood into adolescence.

Nutrients, Cognitive Development, and Academic Performance

Deficiencies in protein, energy, and micronutrients such as iron, zinc, selenium, iodine, and omega-3 fatty acids have been linked to adverse effects on cognitive and emotional functioning ( Bryan et al., 2004 ). Research has shown that iron-deficiency anemia (IDA) is associated with lower cognitive and academic performance ( Bryan et al., 2004 ; Nyaradi et al., 2013 ; Taras, 2005 ). Children at an early school age who had IDA as an infant were found to have lower test scores than those who did not have IDA. Effects of severe IDA in infancy have been seen in adolescence. These effects include lower scores in motor functioning; written expression; arithmetic achievement; and some specific cognitive processes, such as spatial memory and selective recall ( NRC and IOM, 2000 ). However, it is not clear whether children with iron deficiency but no anemia have similar outcomes ( Taras, 2005 ). A review of daily iron supplementation in children aged 5-12 years studied in randomized and quasi-randomized controlled trials showed improvement in measures of attention and concentration, global cognitive scores, and, for children with anemia, intelligence quotient (IQ) scores ( Low et al., 2013 ).

IDA in infancy also has been associated with impaired inhibitory control and executive functioning. Altered socioemotional behavior and affect have been seen in infants with iron deficiency regardless of whether anemia is present ( Lozoff, 2011 ). One study found an association between iron supplementation in infancy and increased adaptive behavior at age 10 years, especially in the areas of affect and response to reward, which may have beneficial effects on school performance, mental health, and personal relationships ( Lozoff et al., 2014 ).

Folate and iodine also have been shown to be important for brain development and cognitive performance ( Bougma et al., 2013 ; Bryan et al., 2004 ; Nyaradi et al., 2013 ), although iodine deficiency is rare in the United States. While there is some evidence that zinc, vitamin B 12 , and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids also may be important for cognitive development, the research on these associations is inconclusive ( Bougma et al., 2013 ; Bryan et al., 2004 ; Taras, 2005 ).

Food Insecurity, Diet Quality, and Healthful Eating

Food insecurity and diet quality in children have both been linked to impaired academic performance and cognitive and socioemotional development. Food insecurity refers to circumstances in which households do not have adequate food to eat, encompassing both inadequate quantity and nutritional quality of food ( ERS, 2014 ). Food insecurity affects development not only by compromising nutrition but also by contributing to a factor in family stress ( Cook and Frank, 2008 ). In 2012, 48 million Americans were food insecure, a fivefold increase from the 1960s and a 57 percent increase from the late 1990s. One in six Americans reported being short of food at least once per year. More than half of affected households were white, and more than half lived outside cities. Indeed, hunger in the suburbs has more than doubled since 2007. Two-thirds of food-insecure households with children have at least one working adult, typically in a full-time job ( McMillan, 2014 ).

A recent review indicates that food insecurity is a “prevalent risk to the growth, health, cognitive, and behavioral potential of low-income children” ( Cook and Frank, 2008 , p. 202). Studies found that children in food-insufficient families were more likely than those in households with adequate food to have fair/poor health; iron deficiency; and behavioral, emotional, and academic problems. Infants and toddlers are at particular risk from food insecurity even at its least severe levels ( Cook and Frank, 2008 ). Cross-sectional studies of children from developing countries have shown an association among general undernutrition and stunting, IQ scores, and academic performance ( Bryan et al., 2004 ). Alaimo and colleagues (2001) found that food insecurity was linked to poorer academic and psychosocial outcomes in children ages 6 to 11 years. Similarly, Florence and colleagues (2008) observed that students with lower overall diet quality were significantly more likely to fail a literacy assessment. Subsequent research has shown that while food insecurity experienced earlier in childhood was associated with emotional problems that appeared in adolescence, cognitive and behavioral problems could be accounted for by differences in the home environments, such as family income and the household's sensitivity to children's needs ( Belsky et al., 2010 ).

Eating breakfast, which can be related to food insecurity, diet quality, and healthful eating habits, has been associated with improved cognitive function, academic performance, and school attendance ( Basch, 2011 ; Hoyland et al., 2009 ; Mahoney et al., 2005 ; Nyaradi et al., 2013 ; Rampersaud et al., 2005 ). According to two reviews of the effect of consuming breakfast in children and adolescents, the evidence suggests that children who consume breakfast—particularly those children whose nutritional status is compromised—may have improved cognitive function, test grades, and school attendance. The positive effects of school breakfast programs may be explained in part by their effect of increasing school attendance ( Hoyland et al., 2009 ; Rampersaud et al., 2005 ). The composition of the breakfast meal may also be important to cognitive performance; a breakfast meal with a low glycemic index, such as oatmeal, has been shown to improve cognitive function ( Cooper et al., 2012 ; Mahoney et al., 2005 ).

In 2011, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) published a report documenting the relationship between healthy eating and increased life expectancy; improved quality of life; and fewer chronic diseases, including cardiovascular disease, obesity, metabolic syndrome, diabetes, and inadequate bone health ( CDC, 2011 ). The report documents the high rate of iron deficiency among obese children and emphasizes the link between dental caries and unhealthy diet. Children are unlikely to follow recommendations for the number of servings of various food groups and they consume higher-than-recommended amounts of saturated fats, sodium, and foods with added sugar. Children's eating behavior and food choices are influenced not only by taste preferences but also by the home environment and parental influences, including household eating rules, family meal patterns, and parents' lifestyles. The school environment influences children's eating behavior as well. The availability of unhealthy options in schools leads to poor choices by children, whereas research has shown that efforts to reduce the availability of sugar-sweetened beverages in the schools can have a positive impact on children's choices ( AAP Committee on School Health, 2004 ). There are also rising concerns about food insecurity in association with obesity; inexpensive foods tend not to be nutritious, and contribute to increasing rates of obesity ( IOM, 2011 ; McMillan, 2014 ).

Physical Activity

A recent Institute of Medicine (IOM) study linked increasing physical activity and enhancing physical fitness to improved academic performance, and found that this can be facilitated by physical activity built into children's days through physical education, recess, and physical classroom activity ( IOM, 2013 ). Likewise, the American Academy of Pediatrics recently highlighted the crucial role of recess as a complement to physical education, suggesting that recess offers cognitive, social, emotional, and physical benefits and is a necessary component of a child's development ( AAP Council on School Health, 2013 ). However, fewer than half of youth meet the current recommendation of at least 60 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per day, and recent years have seen a significant downward trend in the offering of daily physical education in schools at all levels ( CDC, 2012 ; GAO, 2012 ). Positive support from friends and family encourages children to engage in physical activity, as do physical environments that are conducive to activity. However, the school environment plays an especially important role. The IOM report recommends that schools provide access to a minimum of 60 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity per day, including an average of 30 minutes per day in physical education class for students in elementary schools ( IOM, 2013 ).

Partnerships Between Health and Education

Each of the domains of child development and early learning discussed in this chapter can be supported through interventions that involve both the health and education sectors (see also the discussion of continuity among sectors in Chapter 5 ). Specific activities include coordinating vision, hearing, developmental, and behavioral screening to facilitate early identification of children with special needs; completing daily health checks; making appropriate referrals and collaborating with the child's medical home and dental health services; ensuring that immunizations for the entire family and for the early care and education workforce are up to date; modifying and adapting services to meet the individual needs of the child; and providing support to the early care and education workforce to promote more inclusive practices for children with special needs. In addition, teaching and modeling skills in sanitation and personal hygiene will contribute to preventing illness. Furthermore, pediatric health care professionals can make an important contribution by promoting literacy. Extensive research documents the positive impact on early language and literacy development when a pediatric professional gives advice to parents about reading developmentally appropriate books with children as early as 6 months of age ( AAP Council on Early Childhood et al., 2014 ).

There is evidence that coordinated efforts between educational settings and health care services lead to improved health. Head Start, the Infant Health and Development Program, and the Carolina Abecedarian Project are examples of early care and education programs that have integrated health care services into the intervention design, leading to positive health outcomes. Schools also can partner with pediatric health care professionals in their communities to identify opportunities to enhance physical activity in the school setting ( AAP Committee on Sports Medicine and Fitness and AAP Committee on School Health, 2000 ). CDC (2011) has offered recommendations for promoting healthful eating and physical activity that include the following and, if placed in an appropriate developmental context, can be applied to care and education settings for children aged 0-8:

  • Use a coordinated approach to develop, implement, and evaluate healthful eating and physical activity policies and practices.
  • Establish school environments that support healthy eating and activity.
  • Provide a quality school meal program and ensure that students have only appealing, healthy food and beverage choices offered outside of the school meal program.
  • Implement a comprehensive physical activity program with quality physical education as the cornerstone.
  • Implement health education that provides students with the knowledge, attitudes, skills, and experiences needed for healthy eating and physical activity.
  • Provide students with health, mental health, and social services to address healthy eating, physical activity, and related chronic disease prevention.
  • Partner with families and community members in the development and implementation of healthy eating and physical activity policies, practices, and programs.
  • Provide a school employee wellness program that includes healthy eating and physical activity services for all school staff members.
  • Employ qualified persons and provide them with professional development opportunities in staffing physical education; health education; nutrition services; health, mental health, and social services; and supervision of recess, cafeteria time, and out-of-school-time programs.

School-based health centers are another approach to partnering between health and education. They have been associated with improved immunization rates, better adherence to scheduled preventive examinations, and more treatment for illnesses and injuries, as well as fewer emergency room visits. For example, King and colleagues (2006) found that a school-based vaccination program significantly reduced influenza symptoms in the entire school. School-based mental health services also have been shown to be effective in addressing a wide range of emotional and behavioral issues ( Rones and Hoagwood, 2000 ). School-based health centers have been shown to reduce nonfinancial barriers to health care ( Keyl et al., 1996 ), and families also report more satisfaction with their care than in community or hospital settings ( Kaplan et al., 1999 ).

Conclusion About Health, Nutrition, and Early Learning Safe physical and built environments, health, and nutrition are essential to early learning and academic achievement. Food security and adequate nutrition are important to support cognitive development and participation in education, and food insecurity and poor nutrition can contribute to early learning difficulties. Care and education settings provide an opportunity to promote healthful eating and physical activity in learning environments. Providing appropriate health and developmental screenings and follow-up care and services also is important in supporting development and early learning.

Health and Early Learning: Implications for Adults

Healthy children supported by healthy adults are better prepared to learn. Child health begins prior to conception and extends through pregnancy and throughout childhood. Therefore, the early care and education workforce must be prepared to work across generations to provide education, support, and community linkages to ensure that children grow up poised for success. Ongoing federal support for evidence-based home visiting programs for high-risk families that begin early in pregnancy and continue through early childhood is essential. Professionals working in family childcare, early childhood education centers, preschools, and early elementary schools need to have working knowledge of the relationship between health and children's learning and development. Guidance related to nutrition, physical activity, oral health, immunizations, and preventive health care is essential across all early care and education settings. These professionals also need to be provided with supports and opportunities for close collaboration with health care services and their potential integration into or strengthened linkages with the early care and education setting.

  • EFFECTS OF CHRONIC STRESS AND ADVERSITY

As detailed in Chapter 3 , one of the most important advances in developmental science in recent years has been the recognition that the brain incorporates experience into its development. Although experience is important at any age, early experiences are especially formative in the development of the brain's structure and function. Human development is the result of the continuous interaction of genetics and experience. This interplay is true not just of brain development but of other aspects of human development as well. Research in this area encourages developmental scientists as well as parents and practitioners to consider how positive early experiences and enrichment, in formal and informal ways, may have a beneficial influence on the developing brain and in turn on the growth of thinking and learning. The brain's openness to experience is, however, a double-edged sword—adverse early experiences can have potentially significant negative consequences for brain development and early learning.

As discussed in Chapter 3 , evidence indicates that experiences of stress and adversity are biologically embedded and that individual differences exist in the health and developmental consequences of stress. A substantial body of evidence now shows that adversity and stress in early life are associated with higher rates of childhood mental and physical morbidities, more frequent disturbances in developmental trajectories and educational achievement, and lifelong risks of chronic disorders that compromise health and well- being ( Boyce et al., 2012 ; Hertzman and Boyce, 2010 ; Shonkoff et al., 2009 ). Children respond to stress differently. Many exhibit withdrawal, anger and irritability, difficulty paying attention and concentrating, disturbed sleep, repeated and intrusive thoughts, and extreme distress triggered by things that remind them of their traumatic experiences. Some develop psychiatric conditions such as depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, and a variety of behavioral disorders ( NCTSN, 2005 ).

What are the circumstances that contribute to chronic adversity and stress for children? All children can experience forms of chronic stress and adversity, but exposures to stress and adversity are socioeconomically layered. Poverty, discussed in more detail below, has been the best studied and is a highly prevalent source of early chronic stress ( Blair and Raver, 2012 ; Evans and Kim, 2013 ; Jiang et al., 2014 ). Young children in the United States also suffer high levels of victimization through child abuse and exposure to domestic violence. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services reported for the year 2012 that of all child abuse victims, approximately 60 percent were age 8 or younger ( Children's Bureau, 2013 ). The highest rates of child abuse and neglect, including fatalities related to child abuse, were reported for children in the first year of life. Comparable biological and behavioral effects of chronic stress have been studied in children in foster care, in those who experience significant or prolonged family conflict, in those who have a depressed parent, and in those who are abused or neglected (see Thompson, 2014 , for a review).

It is noteworthy that these circumstances include not only those that most people would regard as sources of extreme stress for children (e.g., child abuse), but also those that an adult might regard as less significant because they may be less severe although persistent (e.g., parents' chronic marital conflict, poverty). This broader range of circumstances that children experience as stressful is consistent with the view that, in addition to situations that are manifestly threatening and dangerous, children are stressed by the denial or withdrawal of supportive care, especially when they are young.

Culture also is closely interrelated with stress and adversity. Culture affects the meaning that a child or a family attributes to specific types of traumatic events as well as the ways in which they respond. Because culture also influences expectations regarding the self, others, and social institutions, it can also influence how children and families experience and express distress, grieve or mourn losses, provide support to each other, seek help, and disclose personal information to others. Historical or multigenerational trauma also can influence cultural differences in responses to trauma and loss ( NCTSN Core Curriculum on Childhood Trauma Task Force, 2012 ).

Building on the discussion in Chapter 3 of the biology of chronic stress and adversity, the following sections describe more broadly some of the contributing circumstances and consequences for young children, including the stressors associated with economic adversity; social buffering of stress; and the relationships among stress, learning, and mental health.

The Stressors of Economic Adversity

Children in any economic circumstances can experience stress and adversity, but considerable research on the effects of chronic stress on children's development has focused on children living in families in poverty or with low incomes. The number of children in these conditions of economic adversity is considerable. In 2012, nearly half the children under age 6 lived in poverty or low-income families (defined as up to 200 percent of the federal poverty level, 2 which remains a meagre subsistence) ( Jiang et al., 2014 ). During that same year, more than half the children living with their families in homeless shelters were under the age of 6 ( Child Trends, 2015 ).

The research is clear that poverty as a form of early chronic adversity is a risk factor to long-term physical and mental health, and that for children it can be a significant threat to their capacities to cope with stress, socialize constructively with others, and benefit from the cognitive stimulating opportunities of an early childhood classroom. Socioeconomic disparities in children's experiences of socioemotional adversity and challenging physical environments are well documented (see, e.g., Evans et al., 2012 ). Factors other than economic status itself contribute to the challenges and stresses for children living in low-income families ( Fernald et al., 2013 ). Poverty often is accompanied by the confluence of multiple sources of chronic stress, such as food insufficiency, housing instability (and sometimes homelessness), exposure to violence, environmental noise and toxins, dangerous neighborhoods, poor childcare and schools, family chaos, parents with limited capacity (e.g., resources, education, knowledge/information, time, physical or mental energy) to be supportive and nurturing, parents who are anxious or depressed, parents who are harsh or abusive caregivers, impoverished parent–child communication, and home environments lacking cognitively stimulating activities ( Evans et al., 2012 ; Fernald et al., 2013 ).

As discussed in detail in Chapter 3 , the perturbed biological processes that often accompany economic adversity include changes in the structure and function of children's brain circuitry and dysregulation of their central stress response systems. For these children, therefore, the effects of the chronic stresses associated with economic adversity are likely to contribute to academic, social, and behavioral problems. These problems affect not only early learning and the development of cognitive skills (with impacts on the development of language being best documented) but also the development of learning skills associated with self-regulation and persistence, as well as coping ability, health, and emotional well-being ( Blair and Raver, 2012 ; Evans and Kim, 2013 ).

In addition, developmental consequences related to socioeconomic status are not seen exclusively in children from severely impoverished families. Rather, evidence shows a graded effect of deprivation and adversity across the entire spectrum of socioeconomic status, with even those children from the second-highest social class showing poorer health and development compared with those from families of the very highest socioeconomic status ( Adler et al., 1994 ; Hertzman and Boyce, 2010 ). Moreover, as discussed in Chapter 3 , children are not equally affected by early adverse experiences. Genetic and epigenetic influences may have a role in whether some children are more resilient to early adversity than others ( Rutter, 2012 ).

Detrimental prenatal influences may also be important ( Farah et al., 2008 ; Hackman et al., 2010 ). Although this report focuses on children beginning at birth, child development and early learning also are affected by what a child is exposed to before birth, including influences of family disadvantage. Box 4-6 highlights major research findings on the relationships among family disadvantage, fetal health, and child development.

Family Disadvantage, Fetal Health, and Child Development. Children from different family backgrounds—affected by systemic inequities and disadvantage—start life with starkly different health endowments. As but one example, having a low-birth-weight (more...)

Social Buffering of Stress

The neuroscience of stress has yielded greater understanding of how the effects of stress may be buffered through social support. In behavioral and neurobiological studies of humans and animals, researchers have shown how individuals in adversity show diminished behavioral reactivity and better-regulated cortisol response, among other effects, in the company of people who provide them with emotional support. For children, these individuals often are attachment figures in the family or outside the home.

In health psychology, the benefits of social support for the development and maintenance of healthy practices and the control of disease pathology and healing have been studied since the 1970s (e.g., Cassel, 1976 ; Cobb, 1976 ). Social support also has been recognized as a contributor to psychological well-being for children and youth in difficult circumstances ( Thompson and Goodvin, in press) . In recent years, research on the neurobiology of the social buffering of stress has contributed to a better understanding of why social support has these benefits ( Hostinar et al., 2014 ). In human and animal studies, social companionship in the context of adversity appears to have effects on the biological regulators of hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) activity, contributing to greater regulation of stress reactivity through cortical and limbic influences. Social support also appears to stimulate the down-regulation of the proinflammatory tendencies induced by chronic stress, as well as processes driven by neurohormones, including oxytocin, that have other positive benefits ( Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 2010 ). Stated differently, social support not only counters the negative effects of chronic stress reactivity but also stimulates constructive influences that contribute independently to greater self-regulation and well-being ( Hostinar et al., 2014 ). This research is still at an early stage, and establishing reliable associations between brain and behavioral functioning in this area is a work in progress, but research findings are providing increasing support for these processes. In one study, for example, greater maternal support measured when children were preschoolers predicted children's larger hippocampus volume at school age ( Luby et al., 2012 ).

The potential benefits of social support as a buffer of chronic stress reactivity underscore the plasticity of developing behavioral and biological systems. Children in adversity need not suffer long-term harms arising from the effects of chronic stress exposure. In a study of families living in rural poverty, for example, toddlers' chronic exposure to domestic violence was associated with elevated cortisol reactivity. However, this effect was buffered when mothers were observed to respond sensitively to their children ( Hibel et al., 2011 ). Experimental interventions designed to change stressful circumstances and promote positive relationships have yielded similar findings. For example a program aimed at easing young children's transition to new foster care placements and promoting warm, responsive, and consistent relationships with new foster parents provided individualized sessions with child therapists, weekly playgroup sessions, and support for foster parents. This program resulted in a normalization of the children's HPA hyporesponsiveness (an effect of stress discussed in Chapter 3 ) ( Fisher et al., 2007 , 2011 ). Another example comes from an intervention based on attachment theory, which trained caregivers to better interpret and respond affectionately to infants and toddlers in foster care and similarly resulted in a normalization of HPA activity and lower cortisol reactivity ( Dozier et al., 2006 , 2008 ). There may be limits to these potential ameliorative effects, depending on the severity and duration of the exposure to adversity. Children who lived for an extended period in profoundly depriving Romanian orphanages, for example, did not show recovery of dysregulated cortisol reactivity, even after a prolonged period of supportive adoptive care ( Gunnar et al., 2001 ).

Because interventions that can help children recover from the effects of chronic adversity can be expensive and time-consuming, however, it appears sensible to try to prevent these effects from occurring. This can be accomplished by reducing exposure to influences that cause significant stress for children, and by strengthening supportive relationships that can buffer its effects. The development of warm, secure attachments between parents and children illustrates the latter approach. As discussed earlier in this chapter, attachment theorists argue that the reliable support provided by a secure attachment relationship enables infants and children to explore and learn from their experiences confidently with the assurance that a trusted adult is available to assist if difficulty ensues. In this view, secure attachments buffer stress and significantly reduce the child's need to be vigilant for threat or danger. As noted previously, attachment research documents a range of benefits associated with secure parent–child relationships in childhood, including greater language skill, academic achievement, and social competence (see Thompson, 2008 , for a review; West et al., 2013 ). The view that these accomplishments are explained, at least in part, by how secure attachments buffer stress for children is supported by studies documenting the better-regulated cortisol reactivity of young children with secure attachments in challenging situations (see Gunnar and Donzella, 2002 , for a review; Nachmias et al., 1996 ).

Viewed in this light, it appears that the contributions adults make to children's learning extend significantly beyond their reading, conversing, counting, and providing other direct forms of cognitive stimulation. An essential contribution is the safety and security they provide that not only buffers children against significant stress when this occurs, but also enables children to invest themselves in learning opportunities with confidence that an adult will assist them when needed. Such confidence not only enables children to learn more from the opportunities afforded them in the family and outside the home but also fosters their developing self-confidence, curiosity, and other learning skills that emerge in the context of secure relationships ( Thompson, 2008 ). This is a benefit of secure, warm adult–child relationships for all children, not just those in adverse circumstances. This phenomenon is perhaps analogous to that seen in studies in which rat pups with nurturant mothers show enhanced learning and memory in low-stress contexts, whereas pups with nonnurturant mothers show greater proficiency in fear conditioning ( Champagne et al., 2008 ).

One problem, however, is that children in adverse circumstances usually have parents and other caregivers who are affected by the same conditions of adversity. Thus, their parents may not be able to provide them with the support they need. This realization has led to the growth of two-generation interventions that are designed to assist children by providing support to their parents in difficult circumstances ( Chase-Lansdale and Brooks-Gunn, 2014 ).

Stress, Learning, and Mental Health

Children learn readily in contexts of social support and emotional well-being, which derive from positive relationships with those who care for and educate them in the family and outside the home. In these contexts, adults can support and encourage developing competencies, convey positive values about learning and school, and help instill curiosity and self-confidence in children. By contrast, learning and cognitive achievement are hindered when children are troubled. This is the case for children from infancy through adolescence who are living in homes with significant marital conflict, when mothers are chronically depressed, when parents are hostile and coercive, or in other circumstances of family turmoil (e.g., Bascoe et al., 2009 ; Brennan et al., 2013 ; Canadian Paediatric Society, 2004 ; Davies et al., 2008 ).

Socioemotional hindrances to learning and cognitive achievement are apparent very early, before children have begun school, and continue to be important as children move into the primary grades. In educational settings, the emotional effects of problems in educator–child relationships can undermine children's performance and their academic success ( Hamre and Pianta, 2004 ; Jeon et al., 2014 ; Pianta, 1999 ; Pianta and Stuhlman, 2004b ; Skinner and Belmont, 1993 ). As discussed in Chapter 3 , when children are in circumstances of chronic or overwhelming stress, stress hormones affect multiple brain regions, including those relevant to learning, attention, memory, and self-regulation ( McEwen, 2012 ; Ulrich-Lai and Herman, 2009 ). Over time and with continued exposure to stressful circumstances, these neurocognitive processes become altered as a result of the progressive wear and tear of stress hormones on biological systems as they adapt to this chronic stress. As a consequence, immunologic capacities become weakened (contributing to more frequent acute and chronic illness), self-regulation is impaired (contributing to poorer emotion regulation and impulse control), and cognitive and attentional capabilities are blunted ( Danese and McEwen, 2012 ; Lupien et al., 2009 ; Miller et al., 2011 ). For children, these effects can help account for problems in following instructions, paying attention, managing impulsivity, focusing thinking, and controlling emotions in social encounters—each of which can impair classroom performance and academic achievement.

Young children's vulnerability to stress and their reliance on the support of adults are two central considerations in understanding the foundations for childhood mental health ( IOM and NRC, 2009 ). This relationship among stress, early development, and mental health is relevant to understanding the influences that can threaten the socioemotional well-being of younger children—and to understanding why behavior problems can undermine learning and cognitive growth. One illustration of these effects is the high rates of preschool and prekindergarten children being expelled from their classrooms because of disruptive behavior problems—by one report at a rate more than three times the rate of children in the K-12 grades ( Gilliam, 2005 ; see also U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, 2014 ). In this study, the likelihood of expulsion decreased significantly when educators were provided access to early childhood mental health consultants who could assist them in managing behavior problems.

Another illustration is reports by kindergarten teachers that social, emotional, and self-regulatory problems are a common impediment to children's readiness to achieve in their classrooms ( Lewit and Baker, 1995 ; Rimm-Kaufman et al., 2000 ). Other studies have shown that children's conduct problems and internalizing (anxious, depressed) behavior in the classroom can undermine the development of constructive educator–child relationships and foreshadow later social and academic difficulties ( Berry and O'Connor, 2010 ; Koles et al., 2009 ; Ladd and Burgess, 2001 ).

Consistent with the research concerning the biological and behavioral effects of chronic stress, there is increasing evidence that even very young children show clear evidence of traumatization and posttraumatic stress, anxious and depressive symptomatology, behavioral and conduct problems, and other serious psychological problems ( Egger and Angold, 2006 ; Lieberman et al., 2011 ; Luby, 2006 ; Zeanah, 2009 ). Sometimes these symptom patterns overlap, such as in the comorbidity in which depressive symptomatology appears along with oppositional behavior in preschoolers ( Egger and Angold, 2006 ). The origins of these problems are multifaceted, but certainly include interaction of environmental stresses with genetic factors that heighten or reduce children's vulnerability to these stresses. Often these environmental stresses undermine the social support that would otherwise buffer the effects of stress on children. Diagnosing these disorders in young children is a challenge because the behaviors associated with early mental health problems in young children can be different from those observed in adults and adolescents ( Egger and Emde, 2011 ). But progress has been made in developing reliable diagnostic criteria for preschoolers (e.g., Egger and Angold, 2006 ; Keenan et al., 1997 ; Lavigne et al., 2009 ) and even infants and toddlers ( Zero to Three, 2005 ). This work provides a foundation for further study of the developmental origins of early mental health challenges and therapeutic interventions that might help these children.

Connecting the Socioemotional Health of Children and Adults

The preceding discussion makes clear that children's socioemotional health is linked to the socioemotional well-being of the adults in their lives. Consistent with the research on the social buffering of stress discussed earlier, when parents and other caregivers are managing well, they can help children cope more competently with the ordinary stresses that inevitably occur. When caregivers are stressed, by contrast, they cannot provide this buffering and are instead more often a source of stress for children. When parents are depressed, for example, they can be unpredictably sad, hostile, critical, and/or disengaged ( NRC and IOM, 2009 ). This constellation of behaviors constitutes a difficult combination of threat and withdrawal of support for children. Young children with a depressed mother are more likely, therefore, to exhibit heightened stress reactivity to moderate challenges; to have an insecure attachment to the parent; to show lower levels of cognitive performance and, later, poorer academic achievement; and to be at greater risk of becoming depressed themselves.

The adult's emotional well-being is important in the classroom as well. Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing study, Jeon and colleagues (2014) measured the depressive symptomatology of 761 home- and center-based care providers, as well as overall observed classroom quality, and obtained independent measures of the behavior problems of the 3-year-olds in their classrooms. They found that educator depression was linked to higher levels of behavior problems in children, attributable to the poorer quality of the classroom environment. Notably, this study was conducted with a sample of families in economic stress, with the educators often sharing the same financial difficulties. Nevertheless, the association of educator depression with child behavior problems remained even when family influences, including maternal depression and family poverty status, were controlled for. Similar associations of educator well-being with the quality of the classroom environment and children's learning have been found in studies of children in the early primary grades (e.g., Pianta, 1999 ; Pianta and Stuhlman, 2004b ).

Conclusions About Chronic Stress and Adversity Chronic stress and adversity constitute fundamental risks to learning and academic success as well as to emotional well-being for many young children. The biological and behavioral effects of stress and adversity can disrupt brain circuitry and stress response systems, affect fundamental cognitive skills, undermine focused thinking and attention, diminish self-regulation, and imperil mental and physical health. Trauma, adversity, and chronic stress can arise from many sources, such as poverty, family conflict, parental depression, abuse, neglect, or exposure to violence in the community. Supportive and stable relationships with adults can help develop children's adaptive capacities and provide them with a significant stress buffer. It is important for adults who work with children to recognize and appreciate the effects of adversity and to have the capacity to employ strategies for preventing or mitigating them, as well as for promoting cognitive, social, and emotional strengths for coping with adverse and stressful experiences. Given the importance of stable and responsive relationships that provide consistent and nurturing interactions, the well-being of the adults who care for young children contributes to their healthy development and early learning. The stresses of economic disadvantage are manifested not only in differences in children's early experiences in the family and the community but also in the quality and stability of the out-of-home care and education families can access and afford and the quality of the schools children later attend. Socioeconomic differences in the quality of early learning opportunities place large numbers of children at a learning disadvantage and undermine their potential for academic success. These differences begin early and have a cumulative effect over time. Strengthening early learning and developing competencies requires serious and sustained attention to these socioeconomic disparities in opportunity.
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  • Yuill N. A funny thing happened on the way to the classroom: Jokes, riddles, and metalinguistic awareness in understanding and improving poor comprehension in children. In: Cornoldi C, Oakhill J, editors. Reading comprehension difficulties: Processes and intervention. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1996. pp. 193–220.
  • Zeanah CH. Handbook of infant mental health. New York and London: Guilford Press; 2009.
  • Zelazo PD, Carlson SM. Hot and cool executive function in childhood and adolescence: Development and plasticity. Child Development Perspectives. 2012; 6 (4):354–360.
  • Zelazo PD, Lyons KE. The potential benefits of mindfulness training in early childhood: A developmental social cognitive neuroscience perspective. Child Development Perspectives. 2012; 6 (2):154–160.
  • Zelazo PD, Jacques S, Burack JA, Frye D. The relation between theory of mind and rule use: Evidence from persons with autism-spectrum disorders. Infant and Child Development. 2002; 11 :171–195.
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  • Zentall SR, Morris BJ. “Good job, you're so smart”: The effects of inconsistency of praise type on young children's motivation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 2010; 107 (2):155–163. [ PubMed : 20570281 ]
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  • Zimmerman E, Woolf SH. Understanding the relationship between education and health. 2014. [March 23, 2015]. (Discussion paper). http://www ​.iom.edu/understandingtherelationship .
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160 Best Child Development Research Topics and Ideas

Table of Contents

For writing a child development research paper, a good topic is needed the most. But do you think it is easy to search and spot the best child development research topics? Definitely not, the research topic selection is a tedious task that usually requires a lot of time and effort. Hence, to help you, here in this blog post, we have compiled a list of captivating child development research topics and ideas.

Child Development Research Topics

Child Development Research Paper Writing

The Child Development Research Paper is an academic paper that focuses on various topics that are related to the growth process of a child right from birth to adulthood. In general, the study of child development deals with the growth aspects of a child mentally, socially, and physically in each development stage such as newborn, infant, toddler, preschool, school-age, and teenager.

For the growth and development of children, a lot of factors like environment, people the child lives with, education, etc. play a major role. On the whole, very commonly, many external factors influence child development positively and negatively. For writing a child development research paper, you can pick the research topics that address any serious issues that affect the growth and development of a child.

After you have selected an ideal child development research paper topic, you can prepare a strong research paper outline and begin writing your research paper coherently by including the components such as introduction, body, and conclusion. When writing, you can approach the topic from different perspectives.

In a child development research paper, the introduction should be catchy and should have a bold thesis statement. The body should explain the thesis statement in two or three paragraphs with effective topic sentences and supporting evidence. Finally, the conclusion should wrap up the research paper with a good summary and a call to action. Remember, the research paper you craft should be well-structured, persuasive, and informative to your readers.

List of Child Development Research Paper Topics

Child Development is a broad subject with plenty of research topics to focus on. If you are asked to write a child development research paper, then you can consider selecting topics from any research areas such as child psychology, child mental health development , ADHD, or child development stages.

List of Child Development Research Paper Topic Ideas

Here, we have sorted different categories of child development and have listed some best child development research topics for you to consider. Go through the list and pick an ideal research topic that is comfortable for you to research and write about.

Child Development Research Topics

Simple Child Development Research Topics

  • What factors impact the development of a child?
  • Explain how the classroom environment affects child development.
  • Describe the role played by the surroundings in the development of a child.
  • How does playing with other children affect the development of a child?
  • Explain the role of movement in the development of a child.
  • Are children more intelligent than adults?
  • Explain the stimulation process of the early language.
  • Describe the growth and progress of youngsters.
  • Explain how literate communities influence child development.
  • Discuss the early child development stages as defined by Erik Erikson.
  • What is the most harmful parenting style?
  • The effect of genetics on child development.
  • The influence of peers on child development.
  • Why are children often more creative than adults?
  • Diet and its role on child development.
  • Characteristics of serious games.
  • Cultural influence on early childhood brain development.
  • Piaget’s Work and Legacy in Child Development.
  • Pretend Play Importance for the Child’s Development.
  • Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories in Childhood Quantitative Cognitive Development.
  • Developmental Analysis: Personal Introduction of Childhood – Adolescence.
  • Personal and Social Development of the Children

Child Development Research Topics Related to Psychology

  • Explain the importance of developing child psychology.
  • What are the five stages of psychological development?
  • Society is changing the psychology of our children.
  • When should a child see a psychologist?
  • How does bullying affect a child psychologically?
  • Explain how to avoid the risk of psychological underdevelopment in children.
  • Why is it important to monitor the psychological development of a child?
  • How does birth order affect procrastination?
  • Behavioral psychology of autistic children.
  • The science behind understanding child emotions.
  • Developmental perspectives on self-perception in children.
  • Future development in technology and the impacts on early childhood education.
  • Enlist three important child development theories.
  • What is childhood development?
  • Moral development stages and their analysis.
  • What is the development in early childhood and Adulthood?
  • A review of family support on children’s mental health.
  • Barriers to children mental health services in your country
  • Children mental health: Challenges and future.
  • COVID-19 impact on children’s mental health.

Stages of Child Development Research Paper Topics

  • Describe the transition between a newborn to an infant.
  • How does education affect the development of a child in the early stages?
  • How can parents deal with reading and dyslexia problems?
  • Describe the major developmental milestones in children.
  • Explain how parents can address anxiety in children and teenagers.
  • How can a parent identify a problem in their child’s development through the four basic stages?
  • How does caffeine affect teens?
  • How can a parent identify bad habits in their children?
  • How can a parent deal with bedwetting?
  • Explain how parents can address the issue of contraception for teenagers.
  • What Kind of Child Development Takes Place During the Prenatal Stage?
  • Elaborate on Children Services about child development.
  • Role of environment in child development.
  • How do literate communities create an impact on child development?

Early Child Development Research Ideas

  • Stages of toddler mental development.
  • Games to play with your toddler.
  • How does proper nutrition impact early childhood development?
  • The importance of socialization.
  • How much time should you spend with your small child?
  • How authentic are different developmental theories?
  • Should differently-abled children be included in regular classrooms?
  • Does storytelling help in child development?
  • Explain emotional development during early childhood.
  • How do the media affect early childhood development?

Interesting Child Development Essay Topics

  • Analyzing the moral development stages
  • Special needs of differently-abled children
  • The effect of domestic violence on child development
  • How does a divorce affect the development of children?
  • Imaginary friends can be a problem.
  • Discuss Children Services in relation to child development
  • Child Abuse Prevention programs and how they work.
  • Does obesity affect child development?
  • The best parenting model.
  • Music and its benefits for child development.

Best Research Topics on Child Development

  • Describe the 4 types of parenting.
  • How important is family for a small child?
  • A green environment and its effects on children.
  • The best way to develop a child’s language skills.
  • The best games for child mental growth.
  • The effects of social media on children.

ADHD Child Development Research Paper Topics

  • What is Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)?
  • Explain the main causes of ADHD.
  • Can ADHD be cured in the 21st century?
  • The challenges of ADHD for parents.
  • In-depth analysis of ADHD therapy methods.
  • The incidence rate of ADHD in small children.
  • Special needs of children suffering from ADHD.
  • How to improve ADHD behavioral care quality in community-based pediatric settings?
  • Behavioral and pharmacological treatment of children with ADHD
  • The educational implications of ADHD on school-aged children

Child Mental Health Development Research Ideas

  • The effects of sleep disorders on the development of a child.
  • The effects of mono-parental families on small children.
  • The effects of substance abuse on children.
  • The effects of financial insecurity on children.
  • The effects of the death of a parent on small children.

Popular Child Development Research Topics

  • Explain child development during the prenatal stage.
  • How does child development shape their entire life?
  • A premature child is at risk of developing noise-induced hearing loss.
  • Why is depression so common among teens?
  • Why is children’s hands-on and active knowledge studying important?
  • How do caregivers influence child development?
  • Major causes of teenage pregnancy
  • Explain the challenges faced by most people during their adolescent years.
  • Is speaking to a mature person more important in the formation of a child than playing games?
  • What happens if a child fails to get proper development during the four basic stages?

Child Development Project Topics

  • Analyze the impact of sports on child development.
  • Positive social relations and their effect on toddlers
  • Are books important for small children?
  • Technology effects on small children.
  • Poor dieting and its negative effects

Latest Child Development Research Topics

  • Teens in LGBTQ
  • Latest social development techniques
  • How does grief affect child development?
  • How can an abusive environment affect child development?
  • Causes of aggression in children
  • Addiction among the youth
  • What is extended adolescence?
  • Teenage substance abuse
  • Advancements in children’s cognitive development.
  • The effects of social insecurity.
  • Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: What is it?
  • Talk about the primary causes of ADHD.
  • Describe the danger of psychological underdevelopment in children and how to prevent it.
  • Why is it crucial to keep track of a child’s psychological growth?
  • using cutting-edge child development methods to eradicate autism.

Read more: Interesting Satirical Essay Topics For Students To Consider

Trending Child Development Research Topics

  • In light of the four fundamental phases of growth, how can a parent see a problem?
  • What degree of veracity do various developmental theories possess?
  • Should children with special needs attend mainstream classrooms?
  • How may community-based pediatric settings for ADHD care be made better?
  • How does the performance of pupils who study while listening to music compare to that of those who do not?
  • Can the presentation of wholesome meals in attractive packaging influence a youngster to make better eating choices?
  • During infancy, adolescence, and adulthood, how does care affect a child’s development?
  • Family and community ties are the focus of Standard 2. Together, the home and school play a key role in early education.
  • Premature children have the risk of hearing damage brought on by noise.
  • What a toddler has in common with an infant.
  • The toddler stage of child development.
  • White children, low-income families, and single mothers are more affected by early mother work.
  • The impact of pollution on children’s development.
  • The impact of a green atmosphere on kids.
  • Effects of domestic abuse on child development.

Outstanding Child Development Research Topics

  • How to manage a fussy baby.
  • Explain the importance of siblings and their relevance.
  • Write about Positive Parenting and Children’s Cognitive Development.
  • Analyze the benefits of children’s much-needed exposure to nature
  • Compare dyspraxia and autism.
  • What are the stages of play in childhood?
  • How do US states measure up on child rights?
  • How people could use child development research to change public policy?
  • Explain how to solve behavioral issues
  • Why do children need emotional support in early childhood?

Final Words

To write a high-quality child development research paper, pick any topic from the list of excellent topics suggested in this blog post. In case you need any professional online assignment help to complete your child development research paper, then contact us immediately. We have a team of well-experienced  assignment helpers  to assist you in writing a plagiarism-free child development research paper as per your requirements without missing the deadline.

So, without any hesitation, utilize our research paper writing service at an affordable cost and boost your academic scores.

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100+ Child Development Research Topics for Assignments

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Table of Contents

Child development is self-explanatory. It denotes the development process that a child undergoes over time. Some even refer to it as the course of a kid’s growth. 

Field Experts explain child development as the sequence of dialectal, thinking, emotional and physical changes occurring within a kid from birth to adulthood. 

In this crucial period, the child, completely dependent on their parents, becomes somewhat independent. 

These experts further opine that child development is often influenced by the genes passed down by their parents along with prenatal life events. Of course, environmental factors also play an influential role in developing kids’ learning capabilities. 

What Does Child Development Include?

During the child development stage, kids learn various useful life skills. In doing so, they lay the path for their righteous future and their vivid endeavours.

Some vital skills that kids master during their early learning and development stage include as follows –

Exciting Trivia on Child Development

  • For every child, the first 3-5 years of their life hold lots of importance. During this phase, their brain/cognitive functions create a neural pathway at increased rates. Hence, kids undergo rapid growth and Development.
  • When they’re 6 years old, their brains reach 90% of their adult size and can soak up an astonishing amount of information from their everyday experiences and surroundings. 
  • According to UNICEF, approximately 200 million less fortunate kids can’t fully develop their key skills due to low income in their families.
  • Furthermore, the interrelationship between parents’ genetics and environmental factors is pivotal in early kids’ learning and development.

The Crucial Stages of Child Development

As children grow, their physical, emotional, and cognitive skills also develop. And once a child learns and masters a particular skill at a specific age, it is called the ‘ Development Milestone .’

Parents often watch such development milestone stages to determine whether their kid is growing and developing life skills at the right pace. 

For A Better Understanding, Here Are the Crucial Stages of a Child’s Development

The First 2 Months (from birth) 

Kids respond particularly to exterior inducements during the first couple of months from their birth. These new-borns observe their surroundings, react to sounds, and even move their heads from one side to another as their means of expression.

After they cross the 2 months phase, most kids start smiling at folks to show gestures. 

3 to 6 Months (from birth) 

During the span of 3-6 months, kids start becoming more adept at recognising faces and sounds! Plus, they move their heads often and make cute sounds. 

6 Months (from birth) 

After 6 months, the new-borns start communicating with cute gestures and even responding whenever called by their names. They even learn to stand upright and sit.

9 to 12 Months (from birth) 

Kids 9-12 months old begin crawling on all fours and standing up without help or support. Moreover, these kids respond to sounds and gestures better. 

Toddle Phase 

The toddler phase begins when kids are 1-3 years old. Once kids reach this stage, they walk alone without relying on their parents or caregivers. 

They may even be seen climbing stairs or running. Also, during this period, the kid begins uttering some words and understanding their parents’ instructions properly.

Pre-School Phase 

This phase is when a child is 3-6 years old. During this period, the kid develops motor skills and leans to throw, hop, skip and even yank stuff. 

Although not perfect, they can also speak full sentences without much issues. Also, by teaching them proper toilet etiquette, kids can go to the loo independently.

Schooling Phase 

This phase is when the child is 6-7 years old. It is also the period when kid develops language, listening and cognitive skills. Moreover, they start understanding and differentiating various emotions like friendship, love, anger, sadness and respect towards superiors. 

By the time they reach 8, kids start expressing themselves through proper gestures, language and meaningful action. 

Why is Early Childhood Learning & Development So Vital?

Plenty of evidence reveals that kids learn best between 1-6 years old. So, it is imperative to help kids develop critical life skills and lay the foundation for their future.

  • Early child development helps parents/caregivers determine the strengths and weaknesses of a kid. By identifying those issues early on, they can formulate a treatment plan to end the issue before it becomes serious.
  • Early childhood learning and development manifest positive experiences within a child and helps boost their self-confidence. Kids learn to stay optimistic regardless of their circumstances. Moreover, with lots of confidence and positivity oozing out of them, kids dare to try new things and develop new interests/hobbies that give them joy. 
  • Children, from their birth, experience things that shape their identity and personality. By complementing their efforts  (instead of their personality) , early childhood educators help develop stronger personalities in these children, thus shaping them into the person their parents want them to become.
  • Proper childhood learning and development also teaches kids to forge healthy relationships with similar-aged kids around them. Through these meaningful interactions, kids learn about teamwork and working conjointly to accomplish a common task.
  • Furthermore, proper childhood development also positively impacts the child’s long-term physical health outcomes. And that augments their future prospects and inevitable earning potential.

How to Properly Write Child Development Research Topics?

Quality research paper writing from scratch can often overwhelm the best of students. In fact, many suffer sleeplessness worrying about how to write their child development research  paper  topic  properly .

Luckily, the following tips will ease your woes and miseries and educate you on the process. 

You start by using the tips above to browse Child development research topics for Assignments and finalise one you’re confident writing in.

  • Prepare the research paper outline  (featuring the introduction, thesis statement, body, and conclusion).
  • Once you have a proper outline, move over to the researching part. Dig up as much information and data as you can. But only refer to legitimate and quality web sources.
  • After accumulating sufficient information for your paper start writing it per the outline. In the introduction, introduce the topic tactfully and keep your explanations brief and direct. You can also include meaningful data on child development or incorporate an interrogative statement to hook your readers’ interests. Make sure your thesis statement serves as the summary for your whole paper. Do mention your topic coverage, your objective through research and your final verdict!
  • In the body section, you elaborate on those selected points. Use examples, quotations and relevant data to improve reader engagement. You can also incorporate some word art, tables or graphic representations to make your post a good read for your audience. While writing the body, cite all used sources correctly. Pay attention to the specified citation style and ensure you don’t make mistakes. In-text source references add more depth and credibility to your post. It also helps you bypass plagiarism nuisances when rephrasing information from various sources. 
  • Of course, properly writing it won’t do. You must also arrange the information properly so everything doesn’t appear cluttered or incomprehensible. Use individual stanzas to elaborate on various points. Also, use proper transitions to maintain flow and uniformity throughout the research paper. It will simplify things for your readers ( and your paper reviewer ) to grasp everything in one read.
  • Finally, you write the conclusion ( which will surmise everything covered in the body section ). Rephrase the thesis statement. Avoid adding any new information. It may create confusion among your readers. Finally, prompt a call to action among your audience. You can do it with a compelling statement, thought-provoking question or strong quote.

After You Finish Writing:

  • Include a citation index/bibliography section.
  • Edit and proofread your paper thoroughly.
  • Scan the file using premium anti-plagiarism software.
  • Make corrections whenever necessary.
  • Download a report if there are no plagiarism traces.
  • Lastly, request someone to review your work and suggest room for improvement. Make the changes whenever applicable.

That’s it. Your research paper is now submission-ready!

100+ Interesting Child Development Research Topics for College Students

Excellent child development topics.

  • What is the impact of domestic violence on early childhood development?
  • What is the significance of preschool in early kids’ development – Elaborate through your assignment research
  • Explain the various moral development phases in child development.
  • Write a research paper on the important kid’s development theories or philosophies
  • Explain the relevance of Vygotsky’s kids’ development philosophy
  • How does divorce impact a child’s development early on?
  • Explain the role of music in a kid’s early development – Also, share relatable examples with your research
  • Explain in detail the value and importance of early kid’s development
  • An account of the best parenting style. Also, explain how they work through your assignment research paper
  • A detailed analysis of Kid’s Abuse Prevention Programs
  • What is the impact of obesity on early kid’s development
  • How does depression hinder a child’s positive development?
  • Does having an imaginary friend prove problematic for proper child development?
  • How does having siblings help in a kid’s early development?
  •  A Comprehensive Account of Child Service and their role in optimum kids’ development

Developmental Psychology Research Topics

  • Environment and Kid’s Development – What’s the Connection?
  • An Account of Bilingualism’s Effect on early kid’s development
  • Sure-fire ways to educate communities and create awareness towards early childhood learning and education
  • How does good parenting influence positive child development?
  • Explain how negative parenting hinders proper kids’ development early on
  • How to develop proper language skills in children?
  • What are the factors that positively influence early kids’ development?
  • Does having good genetics guarantee positive child development early on?
  • What are the effects of poverty on early kids’ development?
  • How to boost cognitive development in kids? Explain through your assignment research
  • An account of the prevalent circular issues in early childhood development
  • What factors hinder a kid’s development early on?
  • A detailed account of Asperger’s Disorder and its Influence on Kid’s Development
  •  How does child development gets hindered by toxic/abusive relationships?
  • How does technology help advance kids’ Development early on? – Write using real-time examples

Easy Child Development Research Topics

  • What role do video games play in kids’ development?
  • Why must kids attain proper computer literacy?
  • Classroom influence on early childhood development?
  • Why/How appropriate parenting style is pivotal in positive kid development?
  • The Influence of Genes on a Kid’s Early development
  • An Account of the 5 crucial stages of early kid’s development
  • How does outdoor playing help in early kids’ development?
  • Is technology a boon or bane for early kids’ development? Write using examples 
  • How does aiming the Microbiome augments under-nutrition children?
  • How does physically hitting children hinder their early development and self-confidence?
  • How to prevent anxiety, depression and mental illness in kids?
  • Does family lifestyle play a role in a kid’s development – Elaborate through your research paper
  • Why must parents keep an eye on their kid’s mental development?
  • What amount of time must parents spend with their little ones?
  • Does digital media hamper kids’ development?

Thought-Provoking Research Topics in Early Childhood Education

  • A detailed account of Early kid’s educational policies and standards
  • The hallmarks of a competent early child educator
  • Improvement suggestions in the existing early kid’s education and development
  • The value of educational headship in early kid’s education
  • Tips for optimal early kid’s education – Does parent’s involvement make a difference? Explain with examples through your assignment research.
  • What entail the moral dilemmas in early childhood learning and development?
  • An Account of child learning stratagems
  • Why is social interaction crucial to early kids’ education and development?
  • Do parents take it easy when it comes to early childhood education?
  • A crucial facet of early childhood education and development is experiencing nature – Is this statement true?
  • COVID-19 impact on early childhood education and development – Explain comprehensively with examples and relevant data
  •  The importance of encouragement and acknowledgement in early kid’s education and development
  •  The Condition of early childhood education and development in India
  • The State of Early kid’s Education and Development in the USA 
  • What is the condition of early kids’ education in the UK?

Unique Child Development Research Topics for College Students

  • 10 benefits of early childhood education and development – write with examples 
  • How does a good breakfast help improve a kid’s performance?
  • How to make your child understand ‘Sharing is Caring’? Write using relatable examples 
  • Precisely when should a parent take their kid to visit a psychologist?
  • How to monitor your kid’s early learning and development?
  • Is child development given enough importance worldwide? Draw a comparison between 3 worldwide nations
  • What’s the best nutritional diet for little kids? Present 5 dietary suggestions with reasons in your research paper
  • Explain the contrast between Autism and Dyspraxia – How does either condition impact child development?
  • How to teach your child proper eating etiquette?
  • How to empower an introverted kid during early education and development?
  • How does story narration help improve dialectal development in young kids?
  • Ways for parents to deal with bedwetting children?
  • Tips for tackling a fussy child and teaching them good manners
  • Role of Kinder garden learning programs for early child development
  • Learning practices for kids with ADHD ( Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder)

Interesting Child Development Research Topics

  • An account of Mommy and Me classes – What’s the significance?
  • Explain the various phases of PLAY in early child development.
  • The Role of Health in positive early kids’ development
  • How to augment your child’s math skills early on? Write using examples 
  • Tips to improve kid’s confidence during the early stages of learning and development
  • What are the various types of parenting? Explain each type with examples through your assignment research.
  • An Account of Kid’s Early Care Crisis in the US?
  • How proper sleep positively impacts a kid’s neurological development early on?
  • Compile an elaborate piece on various kid’s development theories – Explain each and include examples in your research paper. 
  • Best learning games for kids to partake in during the early stages of learning and development
  • How does Peer interaction impact kids’ early learning and development?
  • Ways to address behavioural issues in young children
  • How financial instability hinders kids’ learning and development?
  •  An account of sleeping disorders and how it impacts kid’s early learning and development
  • What are the primary causes of ADHD in kids? Also, explain the potential cure for ADHD in this 21st century.

Dominant Child Development Topics

  • Ways to maximise capabilities and potential in disabled kids
  • How to empower kids with Autism and develop meaningful habits and behaviours?
  • What does Extended Adolescence denote? Elaborate on this context using real-time examples 
  • What can one do with an early child development course degree?
  • Write a research paper on the fundamentals of proper child development early on
  • At what age do kids learn the fastest and why – explain using examples 
  • Various challenges kids encounter during their early stage
  • How does pollution hamper kids’ development?
  • How do various playing exercises contribute to optimal child development?
  •  How does lack of play hinder proper development in kids?
  • An account of Play-centric learning and development – write using examples 
  • How to enhance your kid’s listening skills? Write using relatable examples 
  • How does early education trigger holistic development in kids?
  • An account of incorporating ART as a medium for kid’s early learning and development
  • Write a research paper on kid’s curriculum standards and early education

If you need help researching your human development research paper topics or require assistance crafting a top-quality paper, get in touch with us. Rest assured our experts will be by your side from start to finish. Get in touch today.

Most Important Frequently Asked Questions Searched By Students

What includes as prevalent child development research topics.

Some common childhood development research topics are as follows –

  • What role do video games play in kids’ Development?
  • How should parents improve their kid’s language skills?

Are you struggling to sortout what are good   child development research topics? Refer to the above section for ideas or communicate with us immediately. 

How do researchers study child development?

Researchers primarily study child development using quantitative methods. They include – Experimentation, Correlation, and Quasi-experimental methods. 

Each method enables researchers to comprehend the relationship among various child development influential factors and come to concrete causes and explanations.

Get help with research topics for child development today through our diligent essay experts.

What are the key theories in child development?

The crucial theories in kids’ Development are Behaviourist , Ecological , Maturationis t, Constructivist, and Psychoanalytic. These theories interpret child’s Development and their overall behaviour in various ways. 

If you need interesting child development research topics on all key theories, contact us ASAP!

How does child development differ across cultures?

Cultural influence plays a crucial role in a kid’s positive Development. It provides them with awareness of who they are and their beliefs regarding language, religion, food, and societal customs. Furthermore, cultures also influence a kid’s linguistic, physical and emotional development.

 If you can’t find child development research paper topics in this context, let us help you. 

What include the crucial factors influencing positive child development?

There are several influential factors. 

  • Economics 
  • Family 
  • Physical ability

Each plays a crucial role in manifesting positive child development. Convey to us if you need help with child development essay topics in these genres. 

In what way is technology impacting kids’ Development?

Technology can positively impact kids’ development by giving them easy access to information and augmenting their overall knowledge. 

Both software and hardware assist in developing children’s social skills and familiarising them with study disciplines – Art, Science, Mathematics, English, etc.

Consult with us if your research paper pertains to this child development issue!

What denote the 5 milestones in child development?

The 5 crucial milestones in child development entail as follows –

  • Cognitive growth
  • Physical Development
  • Social and emotional growth
  • Motor and sensory development
  • Dialectal or Language Development

Speak to us if you require expert assistance writing a paper on this child psychology topic.

How do children develop language skills?

Although this phenomenon happens during early childhood ( 2-4 years ), some kids develop language skills between 5-6 years.

However, language skills develop for each child through gestures and sounds and eventually via phrases and sentences. 

Parents must always respond to their kids to hone their interactive skills. Moreover, they can also recite storybooks to advance their dialectal skills. 

Hire our experts to explore amazing child development research topics for assignments.

What entails the common parenting styles?

Typically, there are 4 main parenting styles – Authoritarian, Authoritative, Permissive and neglectful.

Speak to us if you require help sorting child development research questions in this context. We will happily offer you the help you seek.

How can research on child development inform parenting practices and policies?

Proper research on child development does help make parenting practices and policies simpler. Parents with more knowledge and awareness about their child’s development can better influence their kids’ mental well-being. 

Mark

Hi, I am Mark, a Literature writer by profession. Fueled by a lifelong passion for Literature, story, and creative expression, I went on to get a PhD in creative writing. Over all these years, my passion has helped me manage a publication of my write ups in prominent websites and e-magazines. I have also been working part-time as a writing expert for myassignmenthelp.com for 5+ years now. It’s fun to guide students on academic write ups and bag those top grades like a pro. Apart from my professional life, I am a big-time foodie and travel enthusiast in my personal life. So, when I am not working, I am probably travelling places to try regional delicacies and sharing my experiences with people through my blog. 

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178 Original Child Development Research Paper Topics

child development research paper topics

Child development is represented by all the changes that occur in a child from the time of their birth to adulthood. The changes covered by child development include all the emotional, physical, thought and language changes.

During the process of development, a child transitions from being dependent on his parents to being an independent young adult. It is generally accepted that there are 5 main stages of child development: newborn, infant, toddler, preschool, and school-age.

If you are pursuing a bachelor of science or even a Master of Science degree, you will inevitably have to write at least one research paper about child development. The good news is that writing the paper shouldn’t be too difficult because the Internet contains plenty of information about most aspect of child development.

However, finding the right child development research paper topics for your papers can pose a problem. Don’t worry, we’ve got you covered. We have a list of 178 original topics on this page that should work great in 2023.

How Does A Good Research Paper Look Like?

OK, but what does a good research paper look like? Well, to help you out, we’ve put together a simple outline that shows you exactly what your paper should contain:

Introduction Background information on the topic Thesis statement Body #1 (first major subtopic) Statement + a little background information Supporting evidence Body #2 (second major subtopic) Statement + a little background information Supporting evidence Body #3 (third major subtopic) Statement + a little background information Supporting evidence Conclusion Restate the thesis Summarize the key points Call to action Works Cited/Bibliography Appendix

Of course, to be able to write the research paper as fast as possible, you need to find the best possible topic. Stop wasting your time scouring the Internet and choose one of these original topics:

Best Child Development Topics

We will start our list of topics with the best child development topics (or what we consider to work great in 2023). Check out this list of awesome ideas:

  • Discuss the Piaget theory on child development
  • Research the mechanisms of child development
  • Analyze the Toddler stage (1-3 years)
  • Research motor skills during child development
  • The socio-emotional development of children
  • Discuss the 5 stages of development
  • Talk about cognitive development
  • Research the Preschool stage (3-4 years)
  • How does development shape a person’s life?
  • Research the role of the environment on development
  • Research hands-on experience learning

Easy Child Research Topics

Next on our list we have some of the easiest topics you can find. Our easy child research topics are meant to help you write the paper faster and save time for other activities:

  • Discuss the Erik Erikson theory on child development
  • Effects of parasites on child development
  • A closer look at the Infant stage (3-12 months)
  • Effects of race on child development
  • The intellectual development of children
  • Discuss maternal drug use effects
  • Effects of neglect on the development of children
  • The 5 stages of child development
  • Talk about the Newborn stage
  • Analyze the Pre-school stage (4-5 years)

Child Development Project Topics

Are you looking to start a child development project? You certainly need a great idea if you want an A+. Here are some child development project topics you could try:

  • Research asynchronous development
  • A project on physical growth
  • A project on gender role
  • A project on language and communication
  • Talk about the effects of malnutrition
  • Postnatal depression and child development
  • Weight growth during child development
  • The speed of height growth
  • Analyze the mechanisms of change
  • A project about individual differences
  • Research the development of children with disabilities

Research Topics On Children

If you are looking for interesting research topics on children, you have arrived at the right place. Take a look at these ideas and choose the one you like the most:

  • Discuss the Behavioral theory on child development
  • An in-depth look at secure attachment
  • How do emotions change over time?
  • Discuss the transition from dependent to independent
  • The effect of family on child development
  • The role of movement
  • The effect of school on child development
  • The importance of playing with other children
  • The importance of the surroundings
  • The effects of the Covid-19 pandemic
  • Psychological changes during development
  • Research the effects of classroom environment

Child Development Research Topics

Of course, we have a lot of child development research topics for students of all ages. Here are some of our best, original ideas that should be excellent for 2023:

  • Discuss the Vygotsky theory on child development
  • The role played by genetics
  • Compare and contrast the toddler and the infant
  • Compare and contrast the infant and the preschool child
  • The importance of a psychologist
  • Discuss the role of caregivers
  • Compare and contrast the toddler and the newborn
  • Effects of positive social interactions
  • Research disorganized families
  • Compare and contrast the preschool and the school age child
  • The negative effects of divorce
  • The role of a good early childhood life

Research Paper Topics Children Love

In case you are looking for some research paper topics children love, we have some of the best ideas right here. Check them out and start working on your paper now:

  • Latest news in child development
  • The importance of a good school
  • The importance of eating breakfast
  • The role of the mother
  • The role of the father
  • Teaching sign language to children
  • The effects of bullying on children
  • Discuss the importance of tangible rewards
  • Nurturing good habits
  • Sports in the life of a child

Child Development Topics For High School

So what if you’re a high school student? You can write about child development too. We even have some excellent child development topics for high school student right here:

  • Discuss ADHD and its effects
  • Negative effects of social media on child development
  • The role of technology in child development
  • Research differently-abled children
  • Study the emotional development of children
  • An in-depth look at the role of good nutrition
  • Research the role of sport in child development
  • Research the occurrence of depression
  • The struggles of preschool children
  • Negative effects of smartphones on child development
  • Effects of mass media on school children

Child Development Psychology Topics

Interested in discuss the psychological part of child development? Have a look at our child development psychology topics; you’ll surely find something of interest:

  • The different stages of psychological development
  • What makes children intelligent?
  • Discuss intellectual growth from 3 to 9 years of age
  • What makes children put their health at risk?
  • Research memory in preschool children
  • The problem-solving capabilities of a toddler
  • Language learning skills at the age of 3
  • Do toddlers have a self-preservation instinct?
  • How do toddlers understand the world around them?
  • Discuss a school psychology topic
  • Research how children think

Interesting Child Development Topics For Papers

Our writers have compiled a list of the most interesting child development topics for papers. All you have to do is choose one of our ideas and start working on your research paper:

  • Why is playing so important?
  • Talk about the effects of climate change on child development
  • How to ensure your child develops properly?
  • Discuss the role of social interaction
  • Is social media good for child development?
  • How do children form their ego?
  • The history of child development
  • Are some children more intelligent than most adults?
  • Research the way children understand life
  • Discuss the role of peers on child development

Great Children Research Topics

Are you in search of some great children research topics? You are in luck because we have a long list of such topics right here:

  • Research a child’s social development
  • Discuss speech development
  • Gross motor skills development
  • How to monitor child development effectively?
  • How important is attention?
  • Birth disorders and their negative effects
  • Talk about behavioral child development
  • The importance of music in child development

Child Development Research Paper Questions

Did you know that the best way to get started on your research paper is to look at some child development research paper questions? Here are some for you:

  • How to identify a child genius?
  • How does the community affect children?
  • Can children overcome trauma?
  • How important are birthday celebrations?
  • How important is the mother in child development?
  • How does the loss of hearing affect children?
  • Does the child need to visit a psychologist?
  • How does autism influence child development?
  • Does Facebook negatively affect a child’s development?
  • What is the role of genetics?
  • What defines a toddler?
  • How important is socialization?
  • How much time should a parent spend with his child?
  • What is the sociocultural theory?

Current Child Development Topics

Talking about the latest research in child development will surely get you some bonus points. Here are some current child development topics:

  • Latest advancements in cognitive child development
  • Autistic children development
  • Are video games dangerous for child development?
  • Severe psychological problems
  • Teaching your child a new language
  • Research into deviant behavior
  • Best games for children to play
  • Effects of a poor diet
  • The negative effects of a lack of physical exercise
  • How does technology influence child development?

Advanced Child Psychology Research Topics

If you want to write about complex topics, we also have a list of advanced child psychology research topics. Choose one of them for free right now:

  • The effects of talking on child development
  • Discuss the most important development milestones
  • The effects of the Covid-19 pandemic lockdowns
  • Discuss how television affects child development
  • Research the diseases that can hinder child development
  • Analyze the connection between a toddler and his parents
  • Research child development in single-parent families

Child Development Topics For College

College students will surely appreciate our long list of child development topics for college. Remember, this list is updated periodically so that everyone can get fresh topics:

  • The effects of family violence
  • Innovative child development techniques
  • How much time should you spend with your child?
  • Games that stimulate mental growth
  • Best ways to solve a behavioral issue
  • Negative effects of substance abuse
  • Negative effects of divorce

Controversial Child Development Topics

Don’t worry, your teacher will surely appreciate your courage. You shouldn’t be afraid to talk about controversial topics in your research paper. In fact, here are some topics to help you get started:

  • Books that children should avoid
  • The need for physical punishment
  • How important are schools?
  • Should children be allowed to play video games?
  • The effects of poverty on child development
  • Discuss the effects of social insecurity
  • Child development in the Indian society

Child Mental Health Essay Topics

Are you interested in talking about the mental health of children? No problem, we have a great list of child mental health essay topics for you:

  • Best ways to develop a positive mentality
  • An in-depth look at anxiety in toddlers
  • Discuss the stages of mental development
  • The occurrence of depression in preschool children
  • Discuss the cause and effects of ADHD
  • Can children suffer from PTSD?
  • Research the oppositional defiant disorder

Early Childhood Essay Topics

If you want to cover early childhood in your research paper, you have definitely arrived at the right place. Here are some awesome early childhood essay topics:

  • Tourette syndrome in toddlers
  • Discuss eating disorders in preschool children
  • The effects of social media on young children
  • Sports that children should play
  • Events that can negatively impact a child’s development
  • Ways to ensure maximum mental growth
  • Discuss the 5 stages of development and make a comparison between them
  • Does music affect the mathematical skills of young children?

Topics Related To Child Psychology

Our experts have created a list of interesting topics related to child psychology that you can use for free. Pick one of these ideas and start writing an A+ paper today:

  • Talk about what makes a child intelligent
  • Things that negative affect a child’s psychological wellbeing
  • Stress in young children in the United States
  • Should you child see a psychologist?
  • Sports that curb child delinquency
  • Discuss the effects of watching excessive television
  • The effects of religious orientation on a child’s mental health

ADHD Child Development Essay Topics

Writing about child development of children suffering from the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is not easy, we know. However, we have some great ADHD Child development essay topics for you:

  • How do ADHD children cope with boring situations?
  • Controlling the activity levels of ADHD children
  • Discuss ways to make ADHD children pay attention
  • ADHD’s effects on the ability to focus
  • Why do ADHD children have learning disabilities?

Get Research Help From The Best

Are you looking for a comprehensive, in depth research paper on an important child development topic, or just need some psychology dissertation help ? Perhaps it’s time to get some research help from our knowledgeable experts and fantastic dissertation writers for hire . All our academic writers have a Master’s or PhD degree and are native English speakers (ENL writers). This means they can be trusted to write college and university level research papers for any class – no matter the degree you are pursuing.

We offer affordable academic writing services online to any student in need, anywhere in the world. We can assure you that our custom papers will be written from scratch and will be 100 percent original (plagiarism report provided for free). In addition, we can edit and proofread your paper to make sure it is 100% accurate and free of any typos or spelling/grammar errors.

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Developmental Psychology Topics

Topics for research, papers, and other projects

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

child development research assignment

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

child development research assignment

  • Childhood Topics
  • Adolescence Topics
  • Adulthood Topics
  • How to Choose
  • Tips for Students

Are you looking for a developmental psychology topic for a psychology paper , experiment, or science fair project? Topics you might pick can range from prenatal development to health during the final stages of life.

Developmental psychology is a broad topic that involves studying how people grow and change throughout their whole lifetime. Topics don't just include physical growth but also the emotional, cognitive, and social development that people experience at different stages of their lives.

At a Glance

The following are just a few different topics that might help inspire you. Remember, these are just ideas to help you get started. You might opt to explore one of these areas, or you might think of a related question that interests you as well.

Developmental Psychology Topics on Childhood

  • Could packaging nutritious foods in visually appealing ways encourage children to make healthier food choices?
  • Do children who listen to music while studying perform better or worse on exams?
  • Do students who eat breakfast perform better in school than those who do not eat breakfast?
  • Does birth order have an impact on procrastination ? Are first-borns less likely to procrastinate? Are last-borns more likely to put off tasks until the last minute?
  • Does teaching infants sign language help or hinder the language acquisition process?
  • How do parenting styles impact a child's level of physical activity? Are children raised by parents with permissive or uninvolved parents less active than those raised by parents with authoritative or authoritarian styles?
  • How does bullying impact student achievement? Are bullied students more likely to have worse grades than their non-bullied peers?
  • Which type of reinforcement works best for getting students to complete their homework: a tangible reward (such as a piece of candy) or social reinforcement (such as offering praise when homework is completed on time)?

Developmental Psychology Topics on Adolescence

  • What factors tend to influence the onset of depression in teens and young adults?
  • How do peer relationships influence identity formation during adolescence and young adulthood?
  • What impact do parent-child relationships have in predicting substance use among teens and young adults?
  • How does early substance use during adolescence impact impulsivity and risk-taking during early adulthood?
  • How does technology use during adolescence influence social and emotional development?
  • How does social media use influence body image among teens?
  • What factors contribute to success during the transition from the teen years to early adulthood?
  • How do cultural differences impact different aspects of adolescent development?

Developmental Psychology Topics on Adulthood

  • Are older adults who rate high in self-efficacy more likely to have a better memory than those with low self-efficacy?
  • Do the limits of short-term memory change as we age? How do the limits of short-term memory compare at ages, 15, 25, 45, and 65?
  • Do mental games such as word searches, Sudoku, and word matching help elderly adults keep their cognitive skills sharp?
  • How do explanations for the behavior of others change as we age? Are younger adults more likely to blame internal factors for events and older adults more likely to blame external variables?

Choosing Developmental Psychology Topics

Developmental psychology is a huge and diverse subject, so picking a topic isn't always easy. Some tips that can help you choose a good developmental psychology topic include:

  • Focus on a specific topic : Make sure that your topic isn't too broad to avoid getting overwhelmed by the amount of information available
  • Have a clear question or hypothesis : Your research question should be focused and clearly defined
  • Do some background research : Spend some time reviewing the existing literature to get a better idea about what you want to cover with your topic
  • Consider developmental theories : You might consider analyzing your topic through the lens of a particular theory of developmental psychology
  • Check out recent research : Use research databases to find the most recently published research on your topic

Before you start working on any paper, experiment, or science project, the first thing you need to do is understand the rules your instructor has established for the assignment.

Also, be sure to check the official guidelines given by your teacher. If you are not sure about these guidelines, ask your instructor if there are any specific requirements before you get started on your research .

If you are going to actually conduct an experiment , you need to present your idea to your instructor to gain their permission before going forward. In some cases, you might have to also present your plan to your school's Institutional Review Board.

Tips for Researching Developmental Psychology Topics

After you have gotten to move forward with your chosen topic, the next step is to do some background research. This step is essential! If you are writing a paper, the information you find will make up your literature review.

If you are performing an experiment, it will provide background information for the introduction of your lab report . For a psychology science project, this research will help you in your presentation and can help you decide how to best approach your own experiment.

What This Means For You

Choosing a topic for a developmental psychology experiment, paper, or project can be tough! The ideas above can be a great place to start, but you might also consider questions you've had about your own life. Once you have a general idea for your topic, narrow it down, do some background research and talk to your instructor.

Nielsen M, Haun D. Why developmental psychology is incomplete without comparative and cross-cultural perspectives .  Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci . 2016;371(1686):20150071. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0071

Leite DFB, Padilha MAS, Cecatti JG. Approaching literature review for academic purposes: The Literature Review Checklist .  Clinics (Sao Paulo) . 2019;74:e1403. Published 2019 Nov 25. doi:10.6061/clinics/2019/e1403

Grady C. Institutional review boards: Purpose and challenges .  Chest . 2015;148(5):1148-1155. doi:10.1378/chest.15-0706

Kim WO. Institutional review board (IRB) and ethical issues in clinical research . Korean Journal of Anesthesiology . 2012;62(1):3-12. doi:10.4097/kjae.2012.62.1.3

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

The HEALthy Brain and Child Development Study

The brain develops rapidly during pregnancy, through early childhood, and into adolescence, supporting a child’s cognitive and emotional development. This rapid growth also represents a highly vulnerable time where a variety of environmental exposures can have a large and enduring impact. Environmental exposures during pregnancy and infancy are also likely to have a significant impact on early brain development and long-term health outcomes.

For example, substance use during pregnancy, throughout breastfeeding, and while parenting has the potential to profoundly affect a child’s development in a variety of ways. The alarming increase in opioid use during pregnancy and the sharp rise in babies born with neonatal abstinence syndrome over the past decades show the urgent need to better understand the complex ways in which exposure to substances during pregnancy affects child health outcomes . 1

Other environmental factors also concern scientists, such as exposure to toxins, structural racism, SARS-CoV-2 and pandemic-related stress, as well as access to healthcare. Research suggests these may influence child development, including brain growth and physical development. 2-5 However, the scarcity of research on normal brain development from birth through adolescence from a large, diverse group of children has limited researchers’ ability to better understand how disruptions and experiences during early periods of growth impact individual development.

To better understand how these factors, alone and in combination, interact with genetics and other biological influences to affect a child’s mental and physical health over time, NIH is conducting the HEALthy Brain and Child Development (HBCD) Study .

What is the HBCD study?

The HEALthy Brain and Child Development (HBCD) Study is a large longitudinal study that will enroll around 7,500 pregnant volunteers from 25 research sites across the United States. The study will collect information about participants during pregnancy, at birth, and through early childhood. While most of the participants are expected to be recruited from the general population of pregnant people, a subset will include those whose babies were exposed during pregnancy or infancy to prescription and illicit opioids, cannabis (marijuana), stimulants, alcohol, and tobacco/nicotine; as well as participants from comparable environments who did not use substances during pregnancy. The HBCD Study is part of the  National Institutes of Health (NIH) HEAL (Helping to End Addiction Long-term SM ) Initiative , launched in April 2018 to investigate evidence-based ways to end the national opioid overdose crisis .

Why is it important to study brain development?

The brain undergoes rapid development prenatally, through early childhood and into adolescence. This rapid growth also represents a highly vulnerable period where a variety of biological and environmental factors can have a large and enduring impact. 6-12 The HBCD study will allow scientists to better understand the complex interplay of biological and environmental factors that shape growing brains at the earliest stages. 

What information will researchers collect?

Like the NIH’s  Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study , which is following more than 10,000 pre-adolescents through young adulthood, HBCD will collect a wide array of variables to chart the children’s development. Information collection will start in pregnancy, including a pregnant participant’s health history. Over the children’s first decade of life, scientists will collect data from regular, noninvasive medical imaging of their brains, as well as medical history; family history; biospecimens; and information on social, emotional, and cognitive development.

The study will also collect information related to COVID-19. For example, researchers at Oklahoma State University for Health Sciences conducted a feasibility study to assess the ability of pregnant people and new parents (both with and without histories of substance use disorders) to access treatment and mental health services during the COVID-19 crisis. Researchers at 17 HBCD sites across the country have been examining COVID-19’s impact on birth outcomes, parenting stress, and early childhood developmental milestones.

What can we learn from the HBCD study?

The HBCD study aims to help researchers:

  • Better understand how the brain develops during pregnancy, infancy, and childhood.
  • Discern how early exposure to opioids and other substances, including alcohol, tobacco, and cannabis, may affect development.
  • Study how other environmental factors, including socioeconomic status, neighborhood safety, and family stability affect early development.
  • Investigate the impact of traumatic events on brain development, including those resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic, parental loss, neglect, housing or food insecurity.
  • Uncover risks for substance use, mental disorders, and other behavioral and developmental problems that emerge during childhood and adolescence, and protective factors that promote resilience and healthy development.
  • Explore how interventions and services provided to pregnant participants, such as substance use disorder treatment or social/economic support, may help protect children from the adverse effects of exposure to drugs or other environmental stressors.
  • Develop, improve, and validate brain imaging technologies for infants. These include magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans looking at the brain’s structure, and newer methods that assess brain function and the connections between brain regions that are important for optimal brain functioning.

How is the study funded?

The HBCD study is funded as a partnership between the NIH HEAL Initiative SM and 11 NIH Institutes, Centers, and Offices with an interest in understanding brain and child development. 

These are:    

  • National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA)
  • National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)
  • National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)
  • National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA)
  • Eunice Kennedy Shriver  National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD)
  • National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (NIBIB)
  • National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS)
  • National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities (NIMHD)
  • Environmental influences on Child Health Outcomes (ECHO) Program
  • Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research (OBSSR)
  • Office of Research on Women’s Health (ORWH)

More on this Topic

  • The NIH HEALthy Brain and Child Development Study
  • Blog from NIDA Director Dr. Nora Volkow On the Purpose and Scope of the HCBD Study
  • The NIH HEAL (Helping to End Addiction Long-Term SM ) Initiative
  • NIDA's Role in the NIH HEAL Initiative SM
  • NIH Research Spotlight: A New Way to Look at the Infant Brain
  • Winkelman TNA, Villapiano N, Kozhimannil KB, Davis MM, Patrick SW. Incidence and Costs of Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome Among Infants With Medicaid: 2004 - 2014.  Pediatrics . 2018;141(4):e20173520. doi:10.1542/peds.2017-3520
  • Provenzi L, Grumi S, Altieri L, et al. Prenatal maternal stress during the COVID-19 pandemic and infant regulatory capacity at 3 months: A longitudinal study [published online ahead of print, 2021 Jul 2].  Dev Psychopathol . 2021;1-9. doi:10.1017/S0954579421000766
  • Lanphear BP, Vorhees CV, Bellinger DC. Protecting children from environmental toxins.  PLoS Med . 2005;2(3):e61. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020061
  • Slopen N, Heard-Garris N. Structural Racism and Pediatric Health-A Call for Research to Confront the Origins of Racial Disparities in Health [published online ahead of print, 2021 Oct 11].  JAMA Pediatr . 2021;10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.3594. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.3594
  • Rakesh D, Seguin C, Zalesky A, Cropley V, Whittle S. Associations Between Neighborhood Disadvantage, Resting-State Functional Connectivity, and Behavior in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study: The Moderating Role of Positive Family and School Environments.  Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging . 2021;6(9):877-886. doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2021.03.008
  • Gilmore JH, Knickmeyer RC, Gao W. Imaging structural and functional brain development in early childhood.  Nat Rev Neurosci. 2018;19(3):123–137. doi:10.1038/nrn.2018.1
  • Ismail FY, Fatemi A, Johnston MV. Cerebral plasticity: Windows of opportunity in the developing brain.  Eur J Paediatr Neurol . 2017;21(1):23-48. doi:10.1016/j.ejpn.2016.07.007
  • Pulli EP, Kumpulainen V, Kasurinen JH, et al. Prenatal exposures and infant brain: Review of magnetic resonance imaging studies and a population description analysis.  Hum Brain Mapp . 2019;40(6):1987-2000. doi:10.1002/hbm.24480
  • Ilyka D, Johnson MH, Lloyd-Fox S. Infant social interactions and brain development: A systematic review.  Neurosci Biobehav Rev . 2021;130:448-469. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.09.001
  • Giedd JN, Blumenthal J, Jeffries NO, et al. Brain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study.  Nat Neurosci . 1999;2(10):861-863. doi:10.1038/13158
  • Salzwedel A, Chen G, Chen Y, Grewen K, Gao W. Functional dissection of prenatal drug effects on baby brain and behavioral development.  Hum Brain Mapp . 2020;41(17):4789-4803. doi:10.1002/hbm.25158
  • Yeoh SL, Eastwood J, Wright IM, Morton R, Melhuish E, Ward M, Lee Oei J. Cognitive and motor outcomes of children with prenatal opioid exposure: A systematic review and meta-analysis.  JAMA Netw Open . 2019;2(7):e197025. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.7025
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100 Best Child Development Research Topics for 2023

child development research topics

If you need to write a research paper about child development, you probably already know that finding great child development research topics is a very difficult task. In fact, it can sometimes take you days to find a good topic to write an interesting essay on. Fortunately, we have a list of research topics in child development that will help you immensely. Remember, all our topics are free to use. You can use them as they are or reword them. To help as many students as possible, we are constantly updating the list. You can easily find fresh topics for 2022 right here.

Having Trouble Finding Topics in Child Development?

Of course, you can try to find topics in child development on various websites. The problem is that most of those topics are years old. Furthermore, most of those child development research paper topics have been used by students over and over again. Your professor is probably bored of reading the same essays every semester, don’t you think?

To make sure you get a top grade on your essay, you need to find original, highly interesting topics. You need research topics for child development that are relevant for the scientific community today. Just pick one of our topics and start writing your essay in minutes.

Easy Child Development Topics

If you are looking from some easy topics so that you don’t have to spend much time writing the essay, you might want to take a look at our awesome easy child development topics:

  • Describe 3 important child development theories
  • Define childhood development
  • Talk about the Vygotsky Theory.
  • What are childcare centers?
  • Are children more intelligent than adults?
  • Music and its benefits for child development.

Child Development Essay Topics for College

Of course, college students should pick topics that are more advanced than those picked by high school attendees. Take a look at some interesting child development essay topics for college students:

  • Child Abuse Prevention programs and how they work.
  • Discuss Children Services in relation to child development
  • How does a divorce affect the development of children?
  • Analyzing the moral development stages
  • Domestic violence effects on child development
  • Three best parenting styles and why they work
  • Special needs of differently-abled children

Controversial Topics Child Development

Child development is, of course, filled with controversial ideas, theories and practices. You may want to talk about some of them, so here are some controversial topics child development ideas:

  • The best parenting model.
  • Family conflict hinders proper child development.
  • Does obesity affect child development?
  • Does race affect child development?
  • Are siblings important at all?
  • Imaginary friends can be a problem.

Best Research Topics on Child Development

Nobody knows what your professor likes or dislikes better than you do. However, we believe the following list of ideas contains some of the best research topics on child development:

  • Coronavirus lockdown and its effects on children.
  • Peers’ influence on child development.
  • Children understand life through play.
  • A green environment and its effects on children.
  • Describe the 4 types of parenting.
  • Diet and its role on child development.
  • How important is his family for a small child?

ADHD Child Development Topics

ADHD is a disorder that affects a growing number of children worldwide. It goes without saying that picking one of our ADHD child development topics will surely surprise your professor:

  • What is Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)?
  • Discuss the main causes of ADHD.
  • Incidence rate of ADHD in small children.
  • The challenges of ADHD for parents.
  • Special needs of children suffering from ADHD.
  • In-depth analysis of therapy methods.
  • Can ADHD be cured in the 21st century?

Interesting Topics Related to Child Development

Are you looking for the most interesting topics related to child development? Here is the list of what our ENL writers consider to be the most intriguing things to talk about in 2022:

  • Games that stimulate child development
  • Does poverty affect the development of children?
  • Tech and its effects of child development.
  • Do imaginary friends play a role?
  • Child development and its effects on the person’s entire life
  • Why are children often more creative than adults?

Child Development Psychology Topics

But what if you want to talk about psychology? The good news is that we have several original child development psychology topics that you can choose from right now for free:

  • What are the five stages of psychological development?
  • An in-depth look at the mental development of children.
  • Improving mental growth: best practices.
  • Lack of attention and its effects.
  • Behavioral psychology of autistic children.
  • Society is changing the psychology of our children.
  • The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Difficult Child Development Topics for Research

Are you looking for a challenge? Do you want to test your ability to write a complex academic paper on a difficult subject? Just pick one of these difficult child development topics for research and start writing:

  • The coronavirus pandemic and its effects on child development.
  • Eliminating dyslexia with novel child development techniques.
  • Best way to develop your child’s language skills.
  • Eliminating autism with novel child development techniques.
  • The minimum time that you should spend with your child.
  • 3 best games for child mental growth.

Current Topics in Child Development

Of course, your professor is most interested in new and exciting research. This is why it is generally a great idea to pick a current topic to write about. Here are some of the best current topics in child development:

  • COVID-19 anxiety in small children.
  • Advancements in children cognitive development.
  • Latest social development techniques.
  • The link between psychical and physical development
  • What are developmental milestones?
  • Solving behavioral issues correctly.
  • Link between play and social skills.
  • Best methods to cure autism in 2022. Check out more autism research topics .

Child Mental Health Development Paper Ideas

Interested in writing about the mental health development of children of all ages? We have some very good news for you. We have a list of child mental health development paper ideas you will find most intriguing:

  • The effects of divorce on small children
  • The effects of the death of a parent on small children
  • The effects of family violence on child development
  • The effects of substance abuse on children
  • The effects of mono parental families on small children
  • The effects of financial insecurity on children
  • The effects of sleep disorders on the development of a child

Child Development Project Topics

Are you looking for an original project idea? Our team managed to create a list of 100% original child development project topics just for you:

  • Talking and its effects on child development.
  • Analyze the impact of sports on child development.
  • Poor dieting and its negative effects.
  • Technology effects on small children.
  • Are books important for small children?
  • Positive social relations and their effect on toddlers.
  • Is Internet exposure recommended?

Psychology Research Topics on Child Development

Researching the psychology of child development can be a very difficult thing to do. However, if you think you are up to the task, pick one of these great psychology research topics on child development:

  • Define the term “sociocultural theory”
  • The 4 stages of psychological development.
  • Analyzing the main psychological processes of children.
  • In-depth analysis of child psychology.
  • Does your children need to see a psychologist?
  • The science behind understanding child emotions.
  • Deviant behavior in small children.

Early Child Development Topics

Talking about infants and toddlers can be very interesting, especially if you manage to find a great topic. Choose one of these early child development topics and start writing your paper right away:

  • Stages of toddler mental development.
  • How much time should you spend with your small child?
  • The importance of socialization.
  • Games to play with your toddler.
  • Is play important for early child development?
  • Infant vs. toddler: the similarities.
  • When does the ego first appear?

Topics About the Stages of Childhood Development

Are you interested in talking about the various stages of childhood development? You are certainly in luck today. We have just added these topics about the stages of childhood development to our list:

  • What are the 5 stages of child development?
  • What defines a newborn?
  • Describe the transition between a newborn to an infant.
  • Child development stages: the toddler.
  • Preschool and school age children: key differences

Latest Child Development Paper Topics

It’s difficult to keep up with science, we know. Here are the latest child development paper topics you may want to write about:

  • Genetics effect on child development.
  • Social media effects on children.
  • Pollution effects on the development of children.
  • Social insecurity effects.
  • Good sleep and its benefits.
  • Preschool programs are improving emotional skills.
  • The science of childhood development.

Need More Child Development Topics for Papers?

But what if you want more than these interesting topics in child development? In case you need a list of original, well thought of topics, we have the perfect solution. Our experienced academic writers can put together a list of new child development topics for papers in no time. And the best part is that only you will get the new list. So, if you need dozens of child development research topics that nobody else thought of yet, you need our help. If you need a custom thesis , we can also help you. Don’t hesitate to get in touch, even during the night.

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Miller Hall

BA in Early Childhood & Family Studies

New scholarship covers your entire education.

ECE students can apply for the new Early Learning Equity Scholarship and get all of their costs covered!

What you can earn

Credits earned, time commitment, upcoming deadline, major in early childhood education.

The Early Childhood and Family Studies (ECFS) program is designed to offer multidisciplinary and critical perspectives of early childhood development, early learning and family-centered education of young children. Through a combination of coursework and hands-on experiences in early learning settings, you will develop the necessary knowledge and skills to create inclusive and equitable learning environments and curriculum for young children.

  • ECFS supports the application of theory and research into practice by:
  • Creating equitable learning environments
  • Strategizing approaches for individualized and culturally responsive instruction
  • Writing curricula that centers children’s lived experiences and funds of knowledge
  • Engaging with colleagues in communities of practice

ECFS prepares you for a rewarding career in early childhood education. We invite you to join us as advocates for children and families!

Transforming inequitable systems

Our curriculum is rooted in the belief that all young children and their families have the right to equitable opportunities to learn and develop in a just and culturally-thriving society. You'll have the opportunity to reflect on your identities and how they are influenced by larger power systems, encouraging critical thinking about early learning, equity, and community.

Read our equity statement

What you'll learn

In ECFS, you'll acquire a range of valuable knowledge and skills that will set you apart.

  • Critical perspectives of early childhood development and learning theories
  • How to foster positive and engaging learning environments for young children
  • Current policies and initiatives in early childhood education
  • Promote skills in language, literacy and STEM using age and developmentally appropriate practices
  • Provide individualized instruction and behavioral support
  • Partner with children, families and communities
  • Question current values, practices, and policies rooted in unjust systems
  • Create anti-bias anti-racist curricula
  • Implement culturally responsive and sustaining pedagogies
  • Self-reflect on biases and socialization experiences to grow personally and professionally

After graduation

Earning your bachelor’s degree in Early Childhood & Family Studies opens doors to various exciting paths:

  • Early childhood teaching
  • Leadership roles in childcare centers and other early learning spaces
  • Social/mental health services and parent and family support programs
  • Involvement in shaping early childhood policies and initiatives
  • Graduate studies in K-12 education, speech and hearing sciences, occupational therapy, special education, psychology and more!

Want to become a PK -12 teacher? ECFS graduates do not earn a teaching certificate, but you will be prepared to apply to many of our  graduate-level programs that will support your career goals, including our  teacher preparation programs .

Let's connect

We're so excited that you're thinking about joining our undergrad program! Join our mailing list to learn about upcoming information sessions, deadlines, scholarships and more!

Join mailing list

Prospective students are welcome to schedule an admission advising appointment with our Lead Admissions & Outreach Adviser, Alejandra Baires-Ramirez, who can provide one-on-one support with:

  • Admissions process
  • Scholarships and financial aid
  • Transferring to UW

Note: If appointments are completely booked, please schedule an admission advising appointment with Ramon Concepcion.

As an ECFS student, you'll explore careers in early childhood education, and engage in courses that focus on research, curriculum, policy, language and literacy, mathematics, science, and technology. Additionally, you'll participate in extended community-based learning experiences, working directly with children in preschool classrooms or childcare centers. This unique combination of academic coursework and practical application will help you develop a comprehensive and culturally relevant understanding of child development and effective teaching strategies. As we engage in (un)learning, you will be challenged to envision systems that are more equitable and just and engage in teaching and advocacy work toward that vision. 

Our program frameworks emphasize creating engaging interactions and environments that support individualized instruction and culturally responsive anti-bias anti-racist education. This program prepares you to be an early childhood professional who understands and actively works to dismantle systems of oppression.

A minimum of 79-81  credits are needed to meet the requirements for the ECFS major. You will work with your advisor to ensure that your graduation plan includes courses required to earn your degree at UW.

Download degree requirements PDF

  • ECFS 200  Introduction to Early Childhood & Family Studies (3 credits with a grade of 2.0 or higher required)

You must also earn 2.0 in English composition course

All of the following

  • ECFS 301 Early Childhood Curriculum (5)
  • ECFS 303 Exploring the Landscape of the Early Learning Profession(3)
  • ECFS 311 Teaching from the Inside Out: Being a Resilient Educator (3)
  • ECFS 312 Positive Behavioral Support in Early Childhood (3)
  • ECFS 321 Engaging Interactions and Environments (3)
  • ECFS 400 Child Observation & Assessment (5)
  • ECFS 401 Understanding Research in ECFS (5)
  • ECFS 402 Social Policy & Young Children and Families (5)
  • ECFS 410 Language and Literacy in Preschool (5)
  • ECFS 411 Young Children’s Mathematics & Science (5)
  • EDPSY 302 Child Development and Learning (5)
  • EDPSY 406 Learning and teaching in Our Changing World (5)
  • EDUC 251 Seeking Educational Equity & Diversity (5)
  • IECMH 432 Infants & Children: Risk & Resilience (5)

One of the following (5)

  • ECFS 315 Parenting and Child Development
  • ECFS 419 Family & Community Influences on the Young Child
  • ECFS 320 Childhood in Cultural Context: Theory and Practice

One of the following (3-5)

  • EDSPE 304 Disability & Ableism in Education
  • EDSPE 414 Issues and Trends in Inclusive Early Childhood Education
  • EDSPE 427 Introduction to Applied Behavioral Analysis
  • EDSPE 435 Introduction to Autism Spectrum Disorders
  • ECFS 454  Senior Project 1 (2 CR)
  • ECFS 455  Senior Project 2 (2 CR)
  • ECFS 456  Senior Project 3 (2 CR)

In addition to your ECFS credits, you'll also need the following general education credits to graduate from the UW.

  • English composition (5 credits)
  • Writing (10 credits)
  • Diversity (3-5 credits)
  • Reasoning (4-5 credits)
  • Arts & Humanities (15 credits)
  • Social Studies (15 credits)
  • Natural Sciences (15 credits)
  • Area of Inquiry (15 credits)

We believe early childhood professionals learn by applying knowledge through action, observation and reflection. ECFS students take part in Community Based Learning (CBL), a place-based education, centering learning in the physical environment, local culture, history, language, and with the people of a community.

You will have many opportunities to integrate your classroom experience into your CBL Experience. You will build on your cultural and contextual knowledge of children’s learning through real-world opportunities to apply your knowledge and skills in early learning settings.

Our students participate in two types of experiential learning:

  • Community-Based Learning Experience : Weekly time spent engaging with young children through your work or volunteering in an early learning setting is required for many courses.
  • Applied assignments: Examples of applied assignments include videos of your practice, environment or child observations, case studies, and an interview with a professional or parent. These may be completed at your Community-Based Learning Experience site.

Already working or volunteering with children in an early learning setting? You can complete the community-based learning experience at your current job! If you need support finding a setting, our CBL coordinator will help you find a place to do your community-based learning.

View the ECE Community-Based Learning Guide

It will take a minimum of 7 quarters to complete the program. To graduate from the University of Washington, you must have a minimum of 180 quarterly credits. How long it takes to graduate depends on a number of factors, including how many credits you are transferring in with and how many credits you take per quarter as an ECFS student.

Admission requirements and process

  • Starting in your sophomore year is recommended
  • Apply Mar. 1 - Apr. 15 for autumn start
  • Apply Sept. 1 - Oct. 15 for winter start

You can start the ECFS program in autumn quarter or winter quarter. For autumn quarter admission, apply March 1 - April 15. For winter quarter admission, apply September 1 - October 15. We recommend starting your application process as early as possible due to the different steps and requirements.

If you're a current UW student, it's best to begin the program during your sophomore year and no later than the autumn quarter of your junior year.

Current UW students who are ready to declare ECFS as their major are welcome to schedule an in-person or virtual advising appointment with Waleed Khan, Academic Adviser. 

  • 2.50 cumulative GPA
  • 5-credit English composition course graded 2.0 or higher

Applicants must also have completed  ECFS 200 Introduction to Early Childhood & Family Studies before starting the ECFS program. Please note:

  • You must be graded 2.0 or higher
  • The course can be in progress when you apply, but must be completed before the ECFS begins
  • Transfer students will complete ECFS 200 after joining UW

Applicants need to write and submit three essays. Each essay should be 250 words or fewer. Use the following three prompts for your essays:

  • Have you experienced, witnessed, or learned about injustices in your educational journey? Please describe. How will the ECFS Major help you understand these injustices?
  • The ECFS major focuses on the educational experiences of children from birth to age 8 and their families. Why are you interested in teaching?
  • A premise of the ECFS major is that teachers can be advocates for social change. What are some of the positive changes you would like to work toward within early education?
  • Gather all required materials
  • Begin the online application form
  • Complete all steps in application process and upload your materials
  • Submit your application

This process is only for current UW students. If you are a transfer student, follow the steps outlined in the Transferring section.

We welcome transfer students to our program! As a transfer student, you will have some additional steps and required materials to your application process. 

If you are interested in the ECFS major, be sure to select the major on your UW Admissions application. We require ECFS 200 to be completed for a student to be fully-admitted to the major. Transfer students who select the ECFS major on their UW Admissions application will have a seat in ECFS 200 held for them.

Transfer students need to submit an unofficial transcript with their ECFS application:

  • Include transcripts from all institutions you have previously attended
  • You must upload your transcript during the application process
  • Do not mail your transcript when you apply

You will be submitting TWO applications: one to join the University of Washington and one to join the ECFS program.

  • Gather all required materials for  UW admissions
  • Gather all required materials for ECFS
  • Connect with our Lead Admissions & Outreach Adviser to help you through the process

Feel confident in the process by attending  Transfer Thursday , an informational event run by the UW Office of Admissions. We also invite you to attend one of our weekly undergraduate majors and minor information sessions.

After submitting your enrollment deposit to the university, admitted transfer students will attend the required Transfer Advising & Orientation hosted by UW First Year Programs . This is a chance for you to meet with an ECFS adviser and create a plan to successfully complete the course and internship requirements.

Costs and funding

We are a tuition-based program. Estimated tuition rates are based on your residency:

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Child Development Research Topics

Exploring Child Development Research Topics: Insights into Growth, Learning, and Well-being

Child development is quite an intriguing and ever-changing field that examines how children grow, learn, and change physically, mentally, emotionally, and socially. Researchers in this area want to learn more about the things that affect how a child grows up. It will help improve the lives and outcomes of children worldwide. In this blog, we’ll examine some intriguing child development research topics.

Table of Contents

What are Child Development Research Topics?

If you’ve taken a course on child development, you might know how typical child development tasks can be. Also, how hard is it to choose research themes on child development? Choosing study topics on child development can take some time, especially if you want to write an engaging essay about them. So, let’s take a quick look at how children grow and change. Only then can we choose great research ideas about it.

Child development is how a child grows and changes when born until adulthood. Also, child development could be split into mental, emotional, and social growth. As a child grows, they change mentally, physically, and socially. In short, a child’s growth and development depend on his environment, the people around him, and what he learns in school.

How to Use Research Topics on Child Development?

Let’s look at some things that might help you choose good research ideas on child development.

  • First, make sure you choose study topics that you feel comfortable doing.
  • Second, consider picking topics from a reputable website and avoid old ones.
  • Third, choose a unique topic for your study on child development, not one that students have used before. Your professor might prefer to read about different things over and over again.
  • Last, pick things that seem real, and vital to a scientific community.

How to Choose Good Child Development Research Topics?

Everyone knows that the Internet has a lot of information about how children grow and learn. Yes, you will benefit from it. But people who want to study need help to develop good topics. It would help if you did a lot of studies on this. Here are three ways to help you find the right ideas for your research paper on child development.-

Step 1: Come up with ideas

If you want to do a study on child development that still needs to be added to the Internet, you must find something that is not done before. Talk to the research paper writer and parenting groups for help with this. They will give you thoughts on what to write about.

Step 2: Pick a subject and narrow it down

Studying in the school library is another way to find child development research topics. Look at some magazines and the work of well-known authors. From this, you see that some areas need to be well-researched.

Step 3: Go over the subject again

If you want to come up with great ideas, you can talk to people with kids. Their experience can help you come up with study ideas.

Some Impactful Child Development Research Topics

1. how early childhood education helps:.

By looking at the long-term results, early childhood education is known for a long time– to be an integral aspect of a child’s growth. This study looks at the long-term effects of early education programs on academic achievement, social skills, and emotional well-being, among other things. By looking at different methods of education and interventions, researchers hope to find the most effective ones that can help a child’s development.

2. Role of Parent-Child Interaction in Language Acquisition:

Language development is one of the most essential aspects of a child’s intellectual and social growth. This study examines how parent-child interactions affect a child’s language development. Researchers examine how different parenting styles, communication methods, and environmental factors affect a child’s language skills, vocabulary growth, and verbal abilities.

3. Technology and how children grow and Learn:

Looking at the pros and cons In today’s digital age, technology is a vital aspect of a child’s life. This study topic is about how technology affects the development of children, including their cognitive skills, ability to pay attention, and ability to get along with others. Researchers look into technology’s possible pros and cons, like how screen time affects language development, problem-solving skills, and general health.

4. Understanding How Socioeconomic Status Affects the Development of the Mind:

Researchers have found that a child’s socioeconomic background affects many parts of their growth. This study examines how socioeconomic factors like income, education, and resource access affects cognitive skills, academic performance, and educational outcomes. Researchers want to figure out how differences in socioeconomic status affect a child’s growth and devise ways to lessen the drastic effects.

5. Trying to figure out how genes affect a child’s behavior and personality:

Genes are a big part of what makes a person act and think the way they do. This study’s subject is finding out how genes affect temperament, intelligence, and mental health. Researchers use different methods, like twin studies and genetic mapping, to determine how genes and the environment work together to shape a child’s growth.

6. Getting kids to have more emotional intelligence:

Emotional intelligence is a key skill that helps a child get along with others, be happy, and do well in life. This study looks at strategies and interventions to help children develop emotional intelligence. Researchers study how well programs improve self-control, empathy, and social skills to develop evidence-based ways to help children grow emotional intelligence.

7. How cultural factors affect social growth in different communities:

Culture and cultural customs impact how a child grows up socially. This study topic looks at how cultural factors, like values, traditions, and social norms, affect how people interact with each other, how they relate to their peers, and how they see themselves. Researchers want to learn more about the cultural factors that lead to good social growth and find ways to help kids from different cultures.

8. Examining how nutrition affects the growth and function of the brain:

Children need to eat well for their brains and minds to grow and work at their best. This study looks at how nutrition affects a child’s development, such as brain structure, cognitive skills, and how well they do in school. Researchers look at the links between certain nutrients, eating habits, and children’s development. It helps them make interventions and policies that help kids eat well.

9. Take a look at how physical activity affects motor skills and overall growth:

Physical exercise is a vital aspect of how a child’s motor skills grow and how well their bodies are. This study topic shows how different kinds of physical activity, like sports, active play, and exercise, affect motor skills, coordination, and physical fitness. Researchers are eager to explore how much and what kind of physical exercise is best for a child’s health and development.

10. Trying to figure out what role play has in cognitive and social growth:

Play is a significant part of a child’s growth because it helps with mental, physical, and emotional aspects. The goal of this topic is to find out how play helps develop creativity, problem-solving skills, and social skills. Researchers look at different kinds of play, like pretend play, rough-and-tumble play, and social play, to learn how different types of play affect a child’s growth and development.

List of Child Development Research Topics

Simple and basic child development research topics.

  • How do kids grow and change?
  • The stages of moral growth and how to look at them.
  • How important childcare places are.
  • The idea of Vygotsky and why it is important?
  • How music helps children grow and learn.

Child Development Research Topics for Exam

  • The role of the surroundings in how a child grows up.
  • How do places where people can read and write affect how children grow and learn?
  • Early language and the process of making it grow.
  • Talk about things that affect how a child grows up.
  • How a child grows and develops is affected by Asperger’s syndrome
  • How does being bilingual affect how a child learns to speak?
  • Talk about things that can go wrong with a child’s brain growth.
  • The things that affect a child’s growth and development
  • The effects of good and bad parenting on a child’s growth
  • How genes affect how a child grows and develops

Exclusive Child Development Research Topics

  • Look at how the classroom setting affects a child’s growth.
  • Talk about how the kids’ nervousness is affected by Covid-19.
  • The importance of the topic development for child psychology homework help.
  • When should a kid see a therapist?
  • Talk about how birth order affects putting things off.
  • How might a child do better in school if he /she eats breakfast?
  • How does bullying affect how well a child does in school?
  • Talk about how bullying affects people’s minds.
  • Relevant for parents to understand how their child acts uniquely.
  • How do parents deal with kids who wet the bed?

Child Development Research Topics for University

  • Covid-19’s lockdown and what it means for kids.
  • Talk about how children grow and change because of their friends.
  • Explain the different steps of a child’s mental growth.
  • Talk about the different ways to raise children.
  • What are the most successful ways to raise a child?
  • How the Internet and online games affect a Child’s mental growth: pros and Cons
  • Compare and contrast the norms and ways of teaching young children in Canada and Australia
  • How do family problems affect a child’s growth?
  • How important socializing is to a child’s growth
  • Why is it important for a person’s personal and work life that a child learns to think and act in society?

High-Scoring Child Development Research Topics

  • ADHD is a problem with small children, and it happens often.
  • Talk about the main reasons for ADHD.
  • Methods of therapy and an in-depth look at them.
  • Does the 21st century have a treatment for ADHD?
  • Technology and how it affects a child’s growth.
  • Parents have trouble with ADHD.
  • What’s the point of fictional friends?
  • How does culture change the way children think?
  • Talk about the three best games for a child’s brain growth.
  • Talk about the key growth strategies.

Child Development Research Topics for Study

  • Discuss how indoor and outdoor games can help a child learn and understand life.
  • Why are attention, vision, motor, and math skills vital for a child’s growth?
  • How do babies learn and grow faster if they connect with other people often?
  • Talk about the most important things that affect a child’s brain growth.
  • How children’s actions change over time
  • Having access to the Internet and its perks.
  • How books are important for kids?
  • Talk about how kids are affected by good relationships.
  • Think about how kids are affected by drug use.
  • List of games to play with babies and young children

Influential Child Development Research Topics

  • Look at how genes affect how a child grows up.
  • How to get kids to stop having weak minds?
  • Teen pregnancy and what makes it happen.
  • Teenagers and drug use.
  • Why do kids act mean, and what makes them do it?
  • Talk about how sadness affects a child’s growth.
  • Talk about the prenatal time and how a child grows up.
  • How caretakers affect how children grow and learn.
  • Explain the idea of extended childhood.
  • Things that affect how children learn to talk and move.

Summing Up:

Child development is a broad field that looks at a child’s growth and development from many angles. This blog looks at various interesting study topics in child development and explains what they mean and how they might affect things. If you are a student looking for a child development research topic, you can connect to assignment help online services . These services will generate extensive topics, and help you write assignments and papers. So, it’s time to feel free from your hustle and complete assignment within a deadline.

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149+ Interesting Child Development Research Topics

Are you pursuing Ph.D. in child development? Or Researching child growth? Ah! We understand you are facing problems in selecting child development research topics. Not to worry, here in this blog, we mention the list of research topics. 

Stay Tuned With Us!

Table of Contents

Do you have any children in your relatives or family? If yes, you can see how a child develops and do research on him/her. A child is the apple of the eye for any home. They make life more lively. Child presence is a gift for everyone. Child development is crucial for every parent. They need proper care.

So come and go through child development quickly and its related stages. It will help you in your research.

“Child development includes the process which explains how a child changes over time. It includes the complete time from conception to an independent individual. It is the journey of child growth.”   

According to Margaret Mead , ” Children must be taught how to think, not what to think.”

Get the best & A+ quality Child Development research paper help from our professional experts to improve your grades.

Some Important Facts

  • The first five years of a child are important because in these years children’s brains start to develop. 
  • As per the UNICEF report, around 200 million children cannot develop fully because they live in low-income countries. 
  • The interconnection between environmental factors and genes plays an important role in child development.

5 Stages Of Child Development

There are five stages of child development. The following are the stages-

child development research assignment

How to find good child development research topics? 

Everyone knows the internet is full of topics related to child development. Yes, it will be helpful for you. However, finding good topics is quite a challenging task for research aspirants. For this, you have to do deep research. Here are three methods that help you in finding out the appropriate topics for your child development research-

Step 1:- Brainstorm Ideas

If you want unique child development research topics, you have to find that topic that is not on the internet before. For this, you can talk to the research paper writer and parenting forums. You will get ideas of topics from them. 

Step 2:- Choose a Topic & Narrow down it

Another way to find the research topics of child development is to study in the school library. Go through some journals and the work of well-established authors. From this, you will find some topics that are not appropriately covered or researched.

Step 3:- Review The topic

If you want to find excellent topics, you can directly talk to people with children. Their experience helps you in getting interesting topics for your research.

List of child development research topics

As you know, choosing the topics for child development research is challenging. Students must be careful while choosing the topics. If you are confused while choosing the topics, here a list of some good child development research topics-

1. General Topics For child development research

Here is the following general topic of child development research.

2. Psychology-related topics on child development

These are the best psychology-related topics on child development topics.

3. Topics related to stages of child development

Here are the best topics related to stages of child development.

4. Child nutrition research topics 

Here are the following child nutrition research topics.

5. Essay on child development for high school

Following is the essay on child development for high school.

6. Latest child development research topics

Here are the latest child development research topics.

7. Good Child Development Research Topics

These are the following topics of good child development research. 

8. Basic Child Development Research Topics

Here are some simplest and basic topics for the students. 

9. Google Scholar Child Development Research Topics On Play

Let’s know below the best google scholar child development research topics on the play. 

10. Child Development Research Topics For High-School Students

Follow the below-given topics to know the best child development research topics for school students.

11. Child Development Research Topics For College Students 

These are the following best child development topics given for college or university students.

12. Interesting Child Development Research Topics

The following are the most interesting child development research topics for students.

13. Child Development Research Topics For Good Score

If you want to get high marks in your exam, you can choose a topic from the below-given topics.

14. Technology-Based Child Development Research Topics

Let’s know the child development research topics in technology. 

10 Best Child Development Jobs With Salary In 2023

These are the best high-paying jobs with a Child development degree you can do after having a child development degree. 

I hope the above list helps you in deciding the child development research topics. For more information on different topics, just be in touch with our blogs!

Conclusion (Child Development Research topics)

We hope you get the end of your research here. We explain every aspect of child development research topics, including meaning, ways of selecting topics, and a list of topics. It all will help you in finding good child development research topics. 

If you think you are still confused about the topics, then you can consult our academic writers and professionals. They will give you complete guidance on it.

Why is it important to find child development research topics?

By presenting your thesis in a great way and on interesting topics, you will get A+ in your exam. So it is important to find a good research topic.

Why is knowing about a child’s development important?

By measuring the child’s development, we know whether the child is meeting his developmental milestone.

For whom the child development specialists’ careers are best?

If you like helping children and parents overcome challenges, you may find a child development specialist career rewarding. They will manage the situation calmly.

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ScienceDaily

How parents can help prevent the development of ADHD symptoms

Adhd can be stemmed through specific parenting behaviours, according to study.

Parents of young children with an excitable or exuberant temperament could adapt their parenting style to help moderate their child's potential development of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), according to a new study co-authored by a University of Waterloo researcher.

Developmental psychologists know that temperament, parenting, and the brain's executive functions are interconnected factors in developing ADHD symptoms throughout childhood. But, the study found specific factors that predict a higher chance of ADHD symptoms, pointing to the importance of early targeted intervention.

"A collection of early traits we call exuberance in child temperament, such as high excitement, curiosity and positive responses to unfamiliar people and contexts, combined with family factors might predispose some kids to develop ADHD symptoms," said Dr. Heather Henderson, professor in developmental psychology at Waterloo and a co-author of the study.

"This work demonstrates that parents can really help break down the pathways that lead to ADHD through more directive and engaged parenting behaviours, such as guiding the child with verbal and physical cues as they encounter new situations."

While exuberance in pre-schoolers can be very positive, research shows exuberant children can also have difficulty with self-regulation and executive functions, such as working memory and flexible thinking.

Following 291 children from just four months of age to 15 years, the researchers observed child temperament and parent-child interactions at three years, assessed the child's executive functioning at four years, and analyzed parent-reported ADHD symptoms six times between ages five and 15. The study determined that temperament and parenting work together to impact a child's developing executive functions.

The findings suggest that ADHD symptoms increase throughout childhood when a child shows early exuberant temperament, low to normal executive functions, and receives less directive and engaged parenting as the young child navigates new situations.

"Symptoms of ADHD typically stabilize from ages five to nine and decrease from ages nine to 15. But for predictable cases of very young children with exuberant temperament and less directive parenting, that stabilization may not occur," Henderson said.

"More directive parenting, which is not controlling but guides the child with verbal and physical cues, can help develop the child's self-regulatory skills and prevent their ADHD symptoms from increasing."

The paper, "The Developmental Unfolding of ADHD Symptoms from Early Childhood Through Adolescence: Early Effects of Exuberant Temperament, Parenting and Executive Functioning" by Henderson, Nicole E. Lorenzo, Hong NT Bui, Kathryn A. Degnan, Jennifer M. McDermott, Nathan A. Fox, and Andrea Chronis-Tuscano, was recently published in the journal Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology .

  • ADD and ADHD
  • Child Psychology
  • Mental Health
  • Infant and Preschool Learning
  • Learning Disorders
  • Child Development
  • Educational Psychology
  • Hyperactivity
  • Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
  • Methylphenidate
  • Adult attention-deficit disorder
  • Controversy about ADHD
  • Early childhood education
  • Child abuse
  • Intellectual giftedness

Story Source:

Materials provided by University of Waterloo . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

  • Nicole E. Lorenzo, Hong N.T. Bui, Kathryn A. Degnan, Jennifer M. McDermott, Heather A. Henderson, Nathan A. Fox, Andrea Chronis-Tuscano. The Developmental Unfolding of ADHD Symptoms from Early Childhood Through Adolescence: Early Effects of Exuberant Temperament, Parenting and Executive Functioning . Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology , 2023; DOI: 10.1007/s10802-023-01140-2

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Young kids failing to get adequate nutrition in early childcare centres, research suggests

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Health Young kids failing to get adequate nutrition in early childcare centres, research suggests

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The first 2,000 days of life — from conception to age five — is when we go through the most rapid and extensive brain development that sets the foundation for ongoing life.

During this critical time, some children spend up to 10,000 hours in long day care, Karen Thorpe, who heads up the Child Development, Education and Care Group at the Queensland Brain Institute, said.

"A large part of their nutrition relies on what they receive in those centres, and brains don't function without food."

That’s the drive behind an extensive research program led by Professor Thorpe and her colleague Bonnie Searle investigating the quality of food and nutrition in Australia's early childhood education and care sector.

Their research suggests there are serious deficiencies in the amount and type of food provided within the sector, especially in disadvantaged areas.

Impact of food insecurity and disadvantage

There are two sources of young children's food in childcare centres. Some centres provide the food and some rely on parents sending it in with the child.

In a study of more than 1,600 centres in Queensland , Professor Thorpe and her colleagues found childcare centres in disadvantaged or remote communities were less likely to provide food.

"An alternate way of putting this," Professor Thorpe said, "is parents are required to bring food from home, and these are the families least able to provide food and many are living in circumstances of food insecurity."

Lack of food was a major issue, according to a recently published study by Dr Searle, who compared food quality, mealtime environment, and interactions in metropolitan childcare centres which provided food versus those which didn't.

"What concerned us most was that there wasn't enough food, although across the board the quality of food was poor and did not align with Australian dietary guidelines," Dr Searle said.

"And the situation was worse when parents had to send in food.

"In the centres where the parents were experiencing the highest levels of disadvantage, the children were arriving hungry and the educators were asking the children not to eat their food all at once so it'd last the whole day.

"And we witnessed educators giving their own food to children."

Childcare workers are low paid and often come from the same communities as the children so, according to Professor Thorpe, may themselves be experiencing food insecurity.

'The good, the bad, and the ugly'

The research also found poor food supply affected the behaviour of toddlers and preschoolers through the day.

"The quality of emotional interactions was lower and conflict increased across the day," Dr Searle said.

Professor Thorpe said the emotional environment in early education and care was very important. 

"It is that which predicts children's outcomes, not only as they enter school, but right through to their secondary school years."

Bonnie Searle and Karen Thorpe sitting on a green bench

The findings match the experience of Tamika Hicks, an educator and former centre owner.

Ms Hicks, who has 23 years' experience in the sector, said she's seen the good, the bad, and the ugly.

"The bad is where children are just income earners, fed poor food that is low cost, high carbs, not a lot of protein, high saturated fat.

"Then their behaviour spikes, then they get labelled for different things.

"Then educators are getting burnout because they're dealing with different behaviours at the end of the day and it's a vicious cycle. That's the ugly."

The United Workers' Union (UWU), which represents workers in the early childhood education and care sector, got similar findings when they surveyed their members.

"We found the system for providing meals for little children in long day care centres isn't really set up to make sure children get all the nutrition they need," said Helen Gibbons, the UWU's executive director of early childhood.

"It's really set up around profits, what's affordable for those services and what's easy to make."

A core problem, according to Professor Thorpe, is that the quality standards by which early childhood education and care services are judged don't directly address what and how much the kids are eating but are more focused on hygiene in food preparation, allergy prevention, and nutrition education.

In addition, she said, quality inspectors assessing a centre can't necessarily rely on what they're being told.

"We go into centres and observe and sometimes we will see menus that look very healthy, but that is not what the children eat."

The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission has recently published its report into the market for the supply of childcare services. 

The Productivity Commission is also investigating childcare, and has published a  draft report .

But Professor Thorpe said neither reports directly addressed issues around food and nutrition.

So what are the solutions?

Professor Thorpe says there are two solutions which go together.

The first is to provide targeted food subsidies to centres in areas of disadvantage.

"Australia has a very good database which can indicate which services there are. If we can't do it for all we can at least do it for our most disadvantaged," she said.

The second solution, she suggested, was to ensure early childhood education and care's national quality framework and quality standards against which these services are rated "look at the right things".

A spokesperson for the Minister for Early Childhood Education Anne Aly said there were requirements under the national quality framework to ensure that food provided by a service was nutritious and adequate in quantity.

"Services that choose to provide food are required to have policies and procedures relating to nutrition and dietary requirements. This is monitored by state and territory regulatory authorities," they said in a statement.

"The government will consider the final recommendations of the Productivity Commission inquiry and the future of the early learning system as we chart a course to universal early childhood education and care."

Hear more detail about the research project on the Health Report and subscribe to the podcast .

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Emerging issues that could trouble teens

Stanford Medicine’s Vicki Harrison explains the forces impacting youth mental health today, and why it’s so important to involve teens in solutions.

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One of the most alarming developments across the United States in recent years has been the growing mental health crisis among children and adolescents.

The already dire situation is evolving 2024 already presenting a new set of challenges that Vicki Harrison, the program director at the Stanford Center for Youth Mental Health & Wellbeing , is closely monitoring and responding to.

Stanford Report sat down with Harrison to find out what concerns her the most about the upcoming year. Harrison also talked about some of the promising ways she and her colleagues are responding to the national crisis and the importance of bringing the youth perspective into that response.

Challenging current events

From the 2024 general election to evolving, international conflicts, today’s dialed-in youth have a lot to process. As teens turn to digital and social media sources to learn about current events and figure out where they stand on particular issues, the sheer volume of news online can feel overwhelming, stressful, and confusing.

One way Harrison is helping teens navigate the information they consume online is through Good for Media , a youth-led initiative that grew out of the Stanford Center for Youth Mental Health & Wellbeing to bring teens and young adults together to discuss using social media in a safe and healthy way. In addition to numerous youth-developed tools and videos, the team has a guide with tips to deal with the volume of news online and how to process the emotions that come with it.

Harrison points out that the tone of political discourse today – particularly discussions about reining in the rights a person has based on aspects of their identity, such as their religion, race, national origin, or gender – affects adolescents at a crucial time in their development, a period when they are exploring who they are and what they believe in.

“If their identity is being othered, criticized, or punished in some way, what messages is that sending to young people and how do they feel good about themselves?” Harrison said. “We can’t divorce these political and cultural debates from the mental health of young people.”

Harrison believes that any calls for solving the mental health crisis must acknowledge the critical importance of inclusion, dignity, and respect in supporting the mental health of young people.

Talking about mental health

Adolescence is a crucial time to develop coping skills to respond to stressful situations that arise – a skill not all teens and youth learn.

“It hasn’t always been normalized to talk about mental health and how to address feeling sad or worried about things,” Harrison said. “It’s not something that all of us have been taught to really understand and how to cope with. A lot of young people aren’t comfortable seeking professional services.”

The Stanford Center for Youth Mental Health & Wellbeing is helping young people get that extra bit of support to deal with problems before they get worse.

This year, they are rolling out stand-alone “one-stop-shop” health centers that offer youth 12-25 years old access to a range of clinical and counseling services with both trained professionals and peers. Called allcove , there are three locations open so far – Palo Alto, Redondo Beach, and San Mateo. More are set to open across the state in 2024.

“If we can normalize young people having an access point – and feeling comfortable accessing it – we can put them on a healthier track and get them any help they may need,” Harrison said.

Another emerging issue Harrison is monitoring is the growing role of social media influencers who talk openly about their struggles with mental health and well-being.

While this is helping bring awareness to mental health – which Harrison wants to see more of – she is also concerned about how it could lead some teens to mistake a normal, stressful life experience for a mental disorder and incorrectly self-diagnose themselves or to overgeneralize or misunderstand symptoms of mental health conditions. Says Harrison, “We want to see mental health destigmatized, but not oversimplified or minimized.”

“We can’t divorce these political and cultural debates from the mental health of young people.” —Vicki Harrison Program Director at the Stanford Center for Youth Mental Health & Wellbeing

Eyes on new technologies

Advances in technology – particularly generative AI – offer new approaches to improving teen well-being, such as therapeutic chatbots or detecting symptoms through keywords or patterns in speech.

“Digital solutions are a promising part of the continuum of care, but there’s the risk of rolling out things without the research backing them,” Harrison said.

Social media companies have come under scrutiny in recent years for inadequately safeguarding young adult mental health. Harrison hopes those mishaps serve as a cautionary tale for those applying AI tools more broadly.

There’s an opportunity, she says, to involve adolescents directly in making AI applications safe and effective. She and her team hope to engage young people with policy and industry and involve them in the design process, rather than as an afterthought.

“Can we listen to their ideas for how to make it better and how to make it work for them?” Harrison asks. “Giving them that agency is going to give us great ideas and make a better experience for them and for everyone using it.”

Harrison said she and her team are hoping to engage young people with policy and industry to elevate their ideas into the design process, rather than have it be an afterthought.

“There’s a lot of really motivated young people who see potential to do things differently and want to improve the world they inhabit,” Harrison said. “That’s why I always want to find opportunities to pass them the microphone and listen.”

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Parents Are Highly Involved in Their Adult Children’s Lives, and Fine With It

New surveys show that today’s intensive parenting has benefits, not just risks, and most young adults seem happy with it, too.

A graduation cap is decorated with small flowers and the words “the adventure continues.”

By Claire Cain Miller

American parenting has become more involved — requiring more time, money and mental energy — not just when children are young, but well into adulthood.

The popular conception has been that this must be detrimental to children — with snowplow parents clearing obstacles and ending up with adult children who have failed to launch , still dependent upon them.

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Open this article in the New York Times Audio app on iOS.

But two new Pew Research Center surveys — of young adults 18 to 34 and of parents of children that age — tell a more nuanced story. Most parents are in fact highly involved in their grown children’s lives, it found, texting several times a week and offering advice and financial support. Yet in many ways, their relationships seem healthy and fulfilling.

Nine in 10 parents rate their relationships with their young adult children as good or excellent, and so do eight in 10 young adults, and this is consistent across income. Rather than feeling worried or disappointed about how things are going in their children’s lives, eight in 10 parents say they feel proud and hopeful.

“These parents, who are Gen X, are more willing to say, ‘Hey, this is good, I like these people, they’re interesting, they’re fun to be with,’” said Karen L. Fingerman, a professor at the University of Texas at Austin who studies adults’ relationships with their families.

As for the adult children, she said, “You get advice from a 50-year-old with life experience who is incredibly invested in you and your success.”

Also, these close relationships don’t seem to be holding back young people from reaching certain milestones of independence. Compared with their parents as young adults in the early 1990s, they are much more likely to be in college or have a college degree, Pew found. They are somewhat more likely to have a full-time job, and their inflation-adjusted incomes are higher. (They are much less likely, though, to be married or have children.)

Experts say contemporary hyper-intensive parenting can go too far — and has only gotten more hands-on since the young adults in the survey were children. Young people say their mental health is suffering , and recent data shows they are much more likely to say this than those before them. Some researchers have sounded alarms that one driver of this is children’s lack of independence, and that overparenting can deprive children of developing skills to handle adversity.

The new data suggests that, indeed, young adults are more reliant on their parents — texting them for life advice when older generations may have figured out their problems on their own. But the effects do not seem to be wholly negative.

Professor Fingerman and her colleagues have found that close relationships between parents and grown children protected children from unhealthy behaviors, and young adults who received significant parental support were better able to cope with change and had higher satisfaction with their lives. It was a finding “we just couldn’t believe the first time,” she said, because of the assumptions about over-involved parents.

Both things can be true, said Eli Lebowitz, director of the Program for Anxiety Disorders at the Yale Child Study Center — “that they do rely a lot on their parents, and they do get a lot of positive support from them.”

In previous research , parents often expressed ambivalence about their continued involvement in their adult children’s lives. But the Pew study suggests that has changed, Professor Fingerman said, perhaps a sign they have come to embrace it.

Among parents, seven in 10 say they are satisfied with their level of involvement in their grown child’s life. Just 7 percent say they’re too involved, and one-quarter would like even more involvement. Young adults say the same.

Adriana Goericke, from Santa Cruz, Calif., texts with her daughter, Mia, a college sophomore in Colorado, a few times a day. They share pictures of their food, workouts or funny selfies.

When her daughter asks for advice, mostly about navigating friendships and dating, her mother said she sees her role as a sounding board: “She knows I’m not going to try and run her life, but I’m always there if she needs me.”

Mia Goericke has seen friends who can’t solve problems or make small decisions on their own, but she said that’s different from asking her mother for help. “She will usually ask me what my goals are and try to understand my thinking rather than just tell me what to do,” she said. “It’s like an incredible resource I have at my fingertips.”

When baby boomers were growing up, there was a belief, rooted in the American ideal of self-sufficiency, that children should be independent after age 18. But that was in some ways an aberration, social scientists said. Before then, and again now, it has been common for members of different generations to be more interdependent.

Parents’ involvement in young adults’ lives began to grow in the 1970s. The transition to adulthood became longer , and less clear-cut: It was no longer necessarily the case that at 18 children left home for college, marriage or jobs. Parenting gradually became more intensive , as people had fewer children and invested more in their upbringings.

Cathy Perry, 66, said she has a very different relationship with her sons, 32 and 36, than she had with her parents when she was that age. They all live in the St. Louis area, and text on a family group chat several times a week. Her older son shares updates on his children, and asks for advice on his career, finances and home remodeling.

As a young adult, she lived an 11-hour drive from her parents, and calls were charged by the minute. “I feel that I have a much closer and more open relationship with my kids, where they are more free to express their opinions on things I might not agree with,” she said.

Open, emotional conversations have become more of a priority for parents, research shows : “They may be the first generation of adults who have parents who actually grew up with the mind-set of talking about this kind of stuff,” Professor Lebowitz said.

In the survey, six in 10 young adults said they still relied on their parents for emotional support, and a quarter of young adults said their parents relied on them for the same, including 44 percent of daughters who said their mothers did.

About seven in 10 parents of young adults said their children ask them for advice, especially about finances, careers, physical health and parenting (among those with children). That’s a change from when they were young — half said they rarely or never asked their parents for advice.

There were gender differences: Young adults were somewhat more likely to say they had a good relationship with their mother than their father. Young women communicated with their parents more frequently than young men.

Cultural and policy factors play a role in parents’ involvement in their grown children’s lives. In the United States , parents and children often rely on one another for child care and elder care . In many immigrant families, it is common for multiple generations to live together or support one another. And technology has made it easier to stay in regular touch.

There is also an increasing understanding that children have different needs, and decreasing stigma around helping them, said Mark McConville, a clinical psychologist in Cleveland. Consider a bright teenager with ADHD, he said. A generation ago, his potential might have been written off. Now, it’s much more likely that his parents identify the issue and find programs to support him — and as a result, that he attends college.

He said a small subset of young adults struggle with starting independent lives (the subject of his book, “ Failure to Launch : When Your Twentysomething Hasn’t Grown Up … and What to Do About It”). But overall, “this new prioritization of their relationship with their kids and attending to their kids’ needs” helps children succeed, he said.

Economic factors have changed, too. Young people are more likely than in their parents’ generation to have student debt — 43 percent do in their late 20s, compared with 28 percent when their parents were that age, Pew found — and are buying homes later, if at all .

Partly as a consequence, parents support their children financially for longer periods — one-third of young adults told Pew they were not financially independent from their parents. They are a bit more likely to live with their parents than the previous generation.

But for many families, support in the form of money or housing can be beneficial to parents, too. Of young adults living at home, three-quarters helped with expenses. One-third of young adults gave their parents financial help in the last year, particularly in low-income families.

And a majority of adult children living at home and parents in that situation said it had a positive effect on their relationship.

“There’s a two-way street going on that I think we need to acknowledge,” Professor Fingerman said. “They’re not all kids living in the basement being pampered. They’re kids having relationships with their parents that are good ones.”

Audio produced by Tally Abecassis .

Claire Cain Miller writes about gender, families and the future of work for The Upshot. She joined The Times in 2008 and was part of a team that won a Pulitzer Prize in 2018 for public service for reporting on workplace sexual harassment issues. More about Claire Cain Miller

How to Communicate Better With the Teens in Your Life

Simple strategies can go a long way toward building a stronger, more open relationship..

Active listening is an essential skill when seeking to engage any family member in conversation — teens included. Here is how to get better at it .

There are many reasons why a teen might not be opening up to you. These are the most common explanations for their silence .

Is your kid dismissing your solutions to their problems as irritating or irrelevant? It is usually because they’re not looking for you solve their problems.

Developing a healthy relationship with social media can be tricky. Here is how to talk to teens about it .

If your teen is surly or standoffish, these strategies can help you reconnect .

Are you worried that your kid might be struggling with his or her mental health? Understand the warning signs  and make sure to approach the issue with the utmost sensitivity.

child development research assignment

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Double-blind, Placebo-controlled, Randomized Study of the Tolerability, Safety and Immunogenicity of an Inactivated Whole Virion Concentrated Purified Vaccine (CoviVac) Against Covid-19 of Children at the Age of 12-17 Years Inclusive"

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Recruitment of volunteers will be competitive. A maximum of 450 children aged 12 to 17 years inclusive will be screened in the study, of which it is planned to include and randomize 300 children who meet the criteria for inclusion in the study and do not have non-inclusion criteria, data on which will be used for subsequent safety and immunogenicity analysis.

Group 1 - 150 volunteers who will be vaccinated with the Nobivac vaccine twice with an interval of 21 days intramuscularly.

Group 2 - 150 volunteers who will receive a placebo twice with an interval of 21 days intramuscularly.

In case of withdrawal of volunteers from the study, their replacement is not provided.

child development research assignment

Inclusion Criteria:

  • Volunteers must meet the following inclusion criteria:

Type of participants • Healthy volunteers.

Age at the time of signing the Informed Consent

• from 12 to 17 years inclusive (12 years 0 months 0 days - 17 years 11 months 30 days).

Paul • Male or female.

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  • For girls with a history of mensis - a negative pregnancy test and consent to adhere to adequate methods of contraception (use of contraceptives within a month after the second vaccination). Girls should use methods of contraception with a reliability of more than 90% (cervical caps with spermicide, diaphragms with spermicide, condoms, intrauterine spirals).
  • For young men capable of conception - consent to adhere to adequate methods of contraception (use of contraceptives within a month after the second vaccination). Young men and their sexual partners should use methods of contraception with a reliability of more than 90% (cervical caps with spermicide, diaphragms with spermicide, condoms, intrauterine spirals).

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SARS-CoV-2 infection

  • A case of established COVID-19 disease confirmed by PCR and/or ELISA in the last 6 months.
  • History of contacts with confirmed or suspected cases of SARS-CoV-2 infection within 14 days prior to vaccination.
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  • Serious post-vaccination reaction (temperature above 40 C, hyperemia or edema more than 8 cm in diameter) or complication (collapse or shock-like condition that developed within 48 hours after vaccination; convulsions, accompanied or not accompanied by a feverish state) to any previous vaccination.
  • Burdened allergic history (anaphylactic shock, Quincke's edema, polymorphic exudative eczema, serum sickness in the anamnesis, hypersensitivity or allergic reactions to the introduction of any vaccines in the anamnesis, known allergic reactions to vaccine components, etc.).
  • Guillain-Barre syndrome (acute polyradiculitis) in the anamnesis.
  • The axillary temperature at the time of vaccination is more than 37.0 ° C.
  • Positive blood test for HIV, syphilis, hepatitis B/C.
  • Acute infectious diseases (recovery earl

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- • Withdrawal of Informed consent by a volunteer and/or a parent of a volunteer;

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  • Availability of inclusion/non-inclusion criteria before vaccination;
  • Any condition of a volunteer that requires, in the reasoned opinion of a medical researcher, the withdrawal of a volunteer from the study;
  • The established fact of pregnancy before the second vaccination;
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SEEKING APPLICANTS FOR THE ILLINOIS UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH AMBASSADORS PROGRAM

The Office of Undergraduate Research (OUR) is looking for motivated and personable undergraduate students in all majors who are excited to introduce and support peers through the Illinois research experience. If you have engaged in research or creative inquiry, be it through coursework, assisting faculty, research staff, or graduate students, or conducting a project of your own, we invite you to apply to the IURA Program and help other students along their research journeys. This application is for the 24/25 academic year. Students will dedicate 5 hours in the Spring 2024 semester to training and assisting with the Undergraduate Research Symposium. Ambassadors will then be expected to work 30 hours per semester for Fall 2024 and Spring 2025.

Program description:  IURAs are a collaborative cohort of accomplished and experienced students at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Ambassadors will promote undergraduate research on the UIUC campus and help OUR develop and maintain student-focused programs that represent UIUC’s diverse array of disciplines. 

Responsibilities:  Ambassadors must be active participants in all assigned responsibilities, including occasional mandatory weekend and evening events, for the full 24/25 academic year. As a Research Ambassador, you will: 

  • Represent and promote OUR's mission to current and prospective undergraduate researchers at on-campus recruiting & outreach events, classroom presentations, and other informational events.
  • Lead or assist in workshops on undergraduate research and participate as a panelist to share your research experience
  • Support OUR's social media campaigns.
  • Mentor, support, and guide undergraduate students at various stages of their research journey.
  • Assist in the organization and logistics of the Undergraduate Research Symposium.
  • Have access to professional development opportunities, such as training in peer mentoring, communication, public speaking, event planning, outreach, and program development.

To learn more about the IURA program and how to apply, check out our  call for applications .  If you are unsure if your experience counts, reach out to us!  If you have any questions, please email us at  [email protected]  or schedule an appointment at  http://go.illinois.edu/askOUR .

Deadline to apply is Monday, March 18, 2024 at 11:59pm

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The Daily Universe

Forty percent of Utahns disagree child sexual abuse is a problem in their communities, new study shows

A research summary focused on collecting Utahns’ perspectives of child sexual abuse was published earlier this year by the Utah Women and Leadership Project .

The summary was based on data from the CDC and Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System , which found one in seven children in Utah will be a victim of sexual abuse. This is higher than the national average of one in nine.

Utah and other religious conservative societies have higher levels of child sexual abuse, UWLP founder Susan Madsen said, and more than 50% of cases are perpetrated by another minor or peer.

In 2008, Madsen was asked by Utah’s Commissioner of Higher Education to investigate the “troubling status” of women and education in Utah. Her research led her to start the UWLP in 2013.

This year’s research summary on child sexual abuse comes from a much larger statewide survey that was conducted last fall. The 80-question survey covered perceptions of domestic violence, the wage gap and sexual harassment.

child development research assignment

When asked whether child sexual abuse is a problem in their immediate community, 40.8% of respondents disagreed that it was a problem.

For many people, it’s hard to believe that something like this could be a problem in Utah, Madsen said.

“If we’re going to change this in the state of Utah, which should be such a top priority for the state, we need to make sure people understand it,” she said.

Knowing the exact numbers is difficult because only a small percentage of people report cases, Madsen said.

“People are nervous to report because they don’t believe they will be believed. So that’s one thing that needs to change,” she said.

BYU’s Title IX office is charged with preventing and responding to incidents of sexual harassment or sexual misconduct at BYU, Title IX coordinator David Rasmussen said.

“We respond to reports of sexual harassment by providing the impacted parties with supportive measures where appropriate,” Rasmussen said.

Through collaborations with local and national organizations, the office attempts to ensure that the campus community is getting the best service possible, he said.

Rasmussen said the office strives to educate the community through in-person trainings, awareness campaigns, workshops and more .

Surveys like the one published last fall are intended to gauge the public’s awareness of issues like child sexual abuse and spark conversation, Madsen said.

“This is part of a bigger movement,” she said. “We’ll be doing a similar study every fall to see what kinds of progress we’re making and where we need to shift.”

UWLP launched A Bolder Way Forward in 2023 as a statewide initiative intended to help Utah women and girls thrive. There are already hundreds of organizations in Utah that have been working together with A Bolder Way Forward, Madsen said.

child development research assignment

“We have lots of groups, and now 16 coalitions have been formed in 16 of the counties. By May, we’ll have all 29 counties,” Madsen said.

The coalitions disseminate basic information about issues in Utah, Madsen said. Each of these coalitions will have goals of where they want their community to be by 2030.

“We’re not looked at as a place that is kind and inviting to women,” Madsen said. “So women that come to Utah to interview for jobs, they’re always a little leery to come because they know that we have the biggest pay gap. They know that there’s challenges in terms of women’s voices and you know, they hear things — some of them are not true, some of them are true.”

Those who are interested can read UWLP’s recently published research summaries on the pay gap, childcare and more here .

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    Stanford Medicine's Vicki Harrison explains the forces impacting youth mental health today, and why it's so important to involve teens in solutions. One of the most alarming developments ...

  25. Parents Are Highly Involved in Their Adult Children's Lives, and Fine

    But two new Pew Research Center surveys — of young adults 18 to 34 and of parents of children that age — tell a more nuanced story. Most parents are in fact highly involved in their grown ...

  26. Double-blind, Placebo-controlled, Randomized Study of the Tolerability

    Recruitment of volunteers will be competitive. A maximum of 450 children aged 12 to 17 years inclusive will be screened in the study, of which it is planned to include and randomize 300 children who meet the criteria for inclusion in the study and do not have non-inclusion criteria, data on which will be used for subsequent safety and immunogenicity analysis.

  27. Seeking Applicants for The Illinois Undergraduate Research Ambassadors

    The Office of Undergraduate Research (OUR) is looking for motivated and personable undergraduate students in all majors who are excited to introduce and support peers through the Illinois research experience. If you have engaged in research or creative inquiry, be it through coursework, assisting faculty, research staff, or graduate students, or conducting a project of your own, we invite you ...

  28. 40% of Utahns disagree child sexual abuse is problem in their

    A research summary focused on collecting Utahns' perspectives of child sexual abuse was published earlier this year by the Utah Women and Leadership Project.. The summary was based on data from ...

  29. Vaccine for intramuscular injection in Vaccine

    Double-blind, Placebo-controlled, Randomized Study of Tolerability, Safety and Immunogenicity of the Inactivated Whole-virion Concentrated Purified Coronavirus Vaccine, Produced by FSBSI "Chumakov Federal Scientific Center for Research and Development of Immune-and-Biological Products", of Children at the Age of 12-17 Years Inclusive"