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Medicine LibreTexts

2.5: Lab Exercise 6- The Skeletal System—Microscopic and Gross Anatomy of Bones

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Lab Summary: In this lab, you will explore the macroscopic and microscopic anatomy and physiology of bones and their tissues. You will also review functions of some key accessory structures of the skeletal system, including the locations and functions of ligaments, tendons, hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, and fibrocartilage.

Your objectives for this lab are:

  • Differentiate between the appendicular and axial skeleton in terms of function and bones included in each division
  • List examples of long, short, sesamoid, irregular, and flat bones
  • Compact/cancellous bone
  • Spongy bone/trabecular bone o Epiphysis
  • Medullary cavity
  • Red bone marrow
  • Yellow bone marrow
  • Articular cartilage
  • Epiphyseal line
  • Sharpey’s fibers o Osteon
  • Spongy bone/trabecular bone o Medullary cavity
  • Explain bone.

the effects of acid and heat on the molecular composition and macroscopic structure of a long

  • Identify the locations and functions of hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage
  • Identify the tissues that composes tendons and ligaments
  • Identify the locations and functions of tendons and ligaments

Background Information

Bone, or osseous tissue, is a hard, dense connective tissue that forms most of the adult skeleton. In the areas of the skeleton where bones move (for example, the ribcage and joints), cartilage, a semi-rigid form of connective tissue, provides flexibility and smooth surfaces for movement. The skeletal system is composed of bones, ligaments, and cartilages that enable it to perform several critical functions for the human body including supporting the body, facilitating movement, protecting internal organs, producing blood cells, and storing and releasing minerals and fat.

Activity 6.1: Major Divisions of the Skeleton & Classifications of Bones

For adults, there are 206 bones in the skeleton. Younger individuals have higher numbers of bones because some bones fuse together during childhood and adolescence to form an adult bone. The skeleton is subdivided into two major divisions—the axial and appendicular.

The axial skeleton, consisting of the 80 bones of the skull vertebral column, and thoracic cage, forms the vertical, central axis of the body (Figure 6.1). It serves to protect the brain, spinal cord, heart, and lungs. It also serves as the attachment site for muscles that move the head, neck, and back, and for muscles that act across the shoulder and hip joints to move their corresponding limbs.

The appendicular skeleton includes all 126 bones of the upper and lower limbs, plus the bones that attach each limb to the axial skeleton (Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). These bones are divided into two groups: the bones that are located within the limbs themselves, and the girdle bones that attach the limbs to the axial skeleton. The bones of the shoulder region form the pectoral girdle, which anchors the upper limb to the thoracic cage of the axial skeleton. The lower limb is attached to the vertebral column by the pelvic girdle.

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Classification of Bone Shapes The 206 bones that compose the adult skeleton are divided into five categories based on their shapes (Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). Their shapes and their functions are related such that each categorical shape of bone has a distinct function.

Long Bones A long bone is one that is cylindrical and is longer than it is wide. Long bones are found in the arms (humerus, ulna, radius) and legs (femur, tibia, fibula), as well as in the fingers (metacarpals, phalanges) and toes (metatarsals, phalanges). Long bones function as levers; they move when muscles contract.

Short Bones A short bone is one that is cube-like in shape, being approximately equal in length, width, and thickness. The only short bones in the human skeleton are in the carpals of the wrists and the tarsals of the ankles. Short bones provide stability and support as well as some limited motion.

Flat Bones The term “flat bone” is somewhat of a misnomer because, although a flat bone is typically thin, it is also often curved. Examples include the cranial (skull) bones, the scapulae (shoulder blades), the sternum (breastbone), and the ribs. Flat bones serve as points of attachment for muscles and often protect internal organs.

Irregular Bones An irregular bone is one that does not have any easily characterized shape and therefore does not fit any other classification. These bones tend to have more complex shapes, like the vertebrae that support the spinal cord and protect it from compressive forces. Many facial bones, particularly the ones containing sinuses, are classified as irregular bones.

Sesamoid Bones A sesamoid bone is a small, round bone that, as the name suggests, is shaped like a sesame seed. These bones form in tendons (the sheaths of tissue that connect bones to muscles) where a great deal of pressure is generated in a joint. Sesamoid bones protect tendons by helping them overcome compressive forces. Sesamoid bones vary in number and placement from person to person but are typically found in tendons associated with the feet, hands, and knees. The patellae (singular = patella) are the only sesamoid bones found in common with every person.

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Procedure for Activity 6.1:  Classifications of Bones

1. Obtain a skeleton from your lab kit or the classroom lab supplies.  Use the information above and your skeleton to fill in the “Classification of Bone Shape” and “Is this an axial or appendicular bone?” columns for each bone listed on the left in the table  below.

                 Note if you are doing this lab remotely,

  • you can use Complete Anatomy (if you have a student subscription; you are not required to purchase a subscription if you are doing this lab with RVCC), or
  • you can a picture, such as this one:  https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/courses-images-archive-read-only/wp content/uploads/sites/18/2014/07/19181404/801_Appendicular_Skeleton.jpg

Activity 6.2: Gross Anatomy of Long Bones

The structure of a long bone allows for the best visualization of all of the parts of a bone (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). A long bone has two major parts: the diaphysis and the epiphysis. The diaphysis is the tubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of the bone which are called epiphyses. The hollow region in the diaphysis is called the medullary cavity, which is filled with yellow marrow in adults. The walls of the diaphysis are composed of dense and hard compact bone.

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The medullary cavity has a delicate membranous lining called the endosteum (end- = “inside”; oste- = “bone”), where bone growth, repair, and remodeling occur. The outer surface of the bone is covered with a fibrous membrane called the periosteum (peri- = “around” or “surrounding”). The periosteum contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels that nourish compact bone. Tendons and ligaments also attach to bones at the periosteum. The periosteum covers the entire outer surface except where the epiphyses meet other bones to form joints (Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). In this region, the epiphyses are covered with articular cartilage, a thin layer of cartilage that reduces friction and acts as a shock absorber.

Flat bones, like those of the cranium, consist of a layer of diploë (spongy bone), lined on either side by a layer of compact bone (Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)). The two layers of compact bone and the interior spongy bone work together to protect the internal organs. If the outer layer of a cranial bone fractures, the brain is still protected by the intact inner layer.

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Procedure for Activity 6.2: Gross Anatomy of Long Bones

  • Obtain a model or preserved specimen* of a long bone that has been cut longitudinally.
  •  *Alternately, you can use cracked poultry bones that have been softened by during the bone broth making process.
  • Review the function of each part listed in Step 2 of this procedure.

Activity 6.3: Microscopic Anatomy of Long Bones

Bone contains a relatively small number of cells entrenched in a crystallized matrix of collagen fibers and inorganic salt crystals. These salt crystals form when calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate combine to create hydroxyapatite, which incorporates other inorganic salts like magnesium hydroxide, fluoride, and sulfate as it crystallizes, or calcifies, on the collagen fibers. The hydroxyapatite crystals give bones their hardness and strength, while the collagen fibers give them flexibility so that they are not brittle. Although bone cells compose a small amount of the bone volume, they are crucial to the function of bones. Four types of cells are found within bone tissue: osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteogenic cells, and osteoclasts (Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\)).

Bone Cells Osteogenic cells are undifferentiated with high mitotic activity; they are the only bone cells that divide. Immature osteogenic cells are found in the deep layers of the periosteum and the marrow. They differentiate and develop into osteoblasts. Osteoblasts are responsible for forming new bone matrix and are found in the growing portions of bone, including the periosteum and endosteum. Moreover, the activation of these cells requires several vitamins include vitamins K2, C, and D to name a few. Osteoblasts, which do not divide, synthesize and secrete the collagen matrix and calcium salts. As the secreted matrix surrounding the osteoblast calcifies under the influence of alkaline phosphatase enzyme, the osteoblast becomes trapped within it; as a result, it changes in structure and becomes an osteocyte, the primary cell of mature bone and the most common type of bone cell. Each osteocyte is located in a space called a lacuna and is surrounded by bone tissue. Osteocytes maintain the mineral concentration of the matrix via the secretion of enzymes. Like osteoblasts, osteocytes lack mitotic activity. They can communicate with each other and receive nutrients via long cytoplasmic processes that extend through canaliculi (singular = canaliculus), channels within the bone matrix.

The dynamic nature of bone means that new tissue is constantly formed, and old, injured, or unnecessary bone is dissolved for repair or for calcium release. The cell responsible for bone resorption, or breakdown, is the osteoclast. They are found on bone surfaces, are multinucleated, and originate from monocytes and macrophages, two types of white blood cells, not from osteogenic cells. Osteoclasts are continually breaking down old bone, while osteoblasts are continually forming new bone. The ongoing balance between osteoblasts and osteoclasts is responsible for the constant but subtle reshaping of bone.

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Compact/ Cancellous Bone Compact bone is the denser, stronger of the two types of bone tissue (Figure \(\PageIndex{6}\)). It is constructed to withstand compressive forces. It can be found under the periosteum and in the diaphysis of long bones, where it provides support and protection. The microscopic structural unit of compact bone is called an osteon, or Haversian system. Each osteon is composed of concentric rings of calcified matrix called lamellae (singular = lamella). Running down the center of each osteon is the central canal which contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels. These vessels and nerves branch off at right angles through a perforating canal to extend to the periosteum and endosteum. Osteocytes are located inside spaces called lacunae (singular = lacuna), found at the borders of adjacent lamellae. As described above, canaliculi connect with the canaliculi of other lacunae and eventually with the central canal. This system allows nutrients to be transported to osteocytes and wastes to be removed from them.

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Spongy/Trabecular/Lamellar Bone Like compact bone, spongy bone, also known as trabecular or lamellar bone, contains osteocytes housed in lacunae, but they are not usually arranged in concentric circles. Instead, the lacunae and osteocytes are found in a latticelike network of matrix spikes called trabeculae (singular = trabecula) (Figure \(\PageIndex{7}\)). The trabeculae may appear to be a random network, but each trabecula forms along lines of stress to provide strength, by enabling support for shifts in weight distribution or dissipation of forces applied to the bone. to the bone. The spaces of the trabeculated network provide balance to the dense and heavy compact bone by making bones lighter so that muscles can move them more easily. In addition, the spaces in some spongy bones contain red marrow, protected by the trabeculae, where blood cell production (hematopoiesis) occurs.

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Procedure for Activity 6.3: Microscopic Anatomy of Long Bones in Models

  • Obtain a model showing the microscopic anatomy of a long bone.
  • In the bone(s), locate Central canal, Lacuna(e), Canaliculi, Osteocytes, Lamella(e), Trabeculae, Sharpey’s fibers, Osteon, Compact/cancellous bone, Spongy /trabecular bone, Medullary cavity, Red bone marrow, Periosteum, Endosteum.
  • Obtain a slide of osseous tissue. You are going to revisit this slide (originally seen in lab exercise 5) with the new knowledge you have learned in this lab.
  • In the bone(s), locate Central canal, Lacuna(e), Canaliculi, Osteocytes, Lamella(e).

Part 3: (You are welcomed to touch the bones. You must wear goggles and use a fresh pair of gloves for each group of bones that you touch.)

  • Go to the designated area in the lab to observe raw bones, baked bones and bones soaked in acid.
  • Observe the raw bones as a baseline for comparison to the baked bones and bones soaked in acid.
  • Compare the visual and physical characteristics of the three sets of bones. Make notes about the differences below. Then answer questions a and b below.

a. Rickets disease is a childhood disease in which bones do not properly mineralize (do not form calcium phosphate properly). This is often due to deficiencies in vitamin D. The vitamin D deficiency will also lead to deficiencies in calcium. The lack of mineralization can often lead to the bowing or bending of bones, especially those in the legs when the child starts to stand and bear weight. Given this information and your observations of the three sets of bones, explain which set of bones you think most closely represents what happens to bones in Rickets disease.

b. Osteoporosis is a disease characterized by osteopenia and lower than normal bone density, often due to a lack of calcium or vitamin D. This results in bones that are more likely to fracture. Given this information and your observations of the three sets of bones, explain which set of bones you think most closely represents what happens to bones in osteoporosis.

Additional Learning Resources:

  • Watch this video to learn about key structures found in a long bone for Activities 1 and 2:    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vwN22f6AI6g&feature=youtu.be
  • Watch this video to learn about microscopic structures found in compact bone for Activity 3:  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZUvZ_XHsi50&feature=youtu.be
  • https://www.purposegames.com/game/compact-bone-model-review-game
  • https://www.purposegames.com/game/structure-of-compact-bone-quiz
  • https://www.purposegames.com/game/bone-section-model-quiz

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Biology LibreTexts

Lab 5 Musculoskeletal Anatomy Part 1: The Skeleton and Bones of the Body

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Objectives:

At the end of this lab, you will be able to…

1.      Describe the general histology of the bone based on the type of bone (cortical or trabecular) tissue 2.      Describe the general structure of bones of body based on classification of the shape of the bone (long, short, flat, sesmoid, or irregular). 3.      Differentiate between bones of the body based on the classification of the shape of the bone. 4.      Identify the bones of the body using correct anatomical terminology 5.      Use correct anatomical terminology to correctly identify bone landmarks that serve as attachment points for skeletal muscles and ligaments 6.      Correctly classify the articulations of the body based on amount of movement that the articulation allows or structure of the articulation 7.      Correctly classify the synovial articulations based on the shapes of the bones and amount of movement allowed

Pre-Lab Exercises:

After reading through the lab activities prior to lab, complete the following before you start your lab.

1.      There are approximately                          bones of the body. 2.      The axial skeleton is made up of the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      . 3.      The bones of the upper extremity include the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        . 4.      The difference between the lumbar vertebrae and the other vertebrae is the size of the                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             . 5.      Color the images for use as a reference for identifying the bones and models.

  • Sagittal-Cut Long Bone Model
  • Bone Box with skeletal bones

The human skeleton is comprised of approximately 206 bones (depending on whether or not you include all of the Sesamoid bones and teeth). These bones are divided into two general regions, axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton, based not on the morphology of the bone per say but the location of the bone and its overall function for the body.   The axial skeletal bones tend to be flat or irregular types of bones, while the appendicular bones tend to long or short types of bones.  The axial skeleton acts as an anchorage for the appendicular skeleton and provides the body with a central rigid framework for protection of what are generally referred to as vital organs.  The axial skeleton is comprised of the costal cage (costal bones, clavicle and sternum), the cranium (bones of the skull), vertebrae and the pelvis, while providing the scaffolding for the erect posture that we assume during locomotion. The appendicular skeleton acts principally as levers for the muscles to pull on in order to provide force for movements of the body.  The appendicular skeleton is comprised of the bones of the upper (humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges) and lower (femur, tibia, fibula, tarsal, metatarsal and phalanges) extremities. Based on the location of the bone, you will notice distinct morphological characteristics of the bones contained within each region of the skeleton.

Activity 1:

General structure:.

Bone Tissue         The bone is comprised of two distinct types of bones that form based on the arrangement of the tissues to establish these hollow cylinders, cortical (compact) and trabecular (spongy) that form layers of tissues (lamellae) within the osteon (region of concentric rings of lamina) that open around the osteocytes (lacunae) that protects the cells from being mineralized.         There are structures to recognize histologically within the cortical bone that provide a means for movements of cells or materials. These histological features are referenced as canaliculi; allow the lacunae to connect with each other.  Connecting to these canaliculi are various openings within the matrix that eventually link to the medullary canal of the long bone or the trabecular medulla of the flat bones.  This includes the Haversian canals that form the central ring of the osteon.  Within the cortical bones these canals run parallel to each other in the parallel orientation of the concentric rings, are linked by secondary openings, the Volkmann’s canal to the medullar cavity of the bones, and allow for the passage of blood vessels and nerves into the bone matrix. Whereas the trabecular bone have Haversian canals that run at angles not parallel to each other and thus do not need the Volkmann’s canal.         Cortical, sometime referenced inappropriately as compact, bone is principally found to the lateral aspect of the bone.  The tissues are arranged in concentric circular formations known as the Haversian systems and align parallel to each other along the long axis of the bone. Trabecular, mistakenly called spongy, bone are oriented at tangents to the long axis orientation of the cortical bone. This bone tissue is aligned along the center of the bone shaft based almost entirely on the lines of force application to the various axes of the bones. In response to the various axes of force, bone growth found within the trabecular bone tends to have the bone tissue resemble the formation of arches or trusses within the central region of the bone that is tangential to the neutral axis of the bone.

Classification of Bones Based on Structure         We have five differentiated classifications for bones based on their structure: Long, Short, Flat, Irregular and Sesmoid. The long bone is comprised on distinct regions include the Articulating Edges, Epiphysis, Diaphysis, Metaphysis and Central Medullary Canal. Within the Medullary canal, there is the bone marrow (Red, site for generating blood cells, and Yellow, lipid stores with the bone that is used for protection of vessels and nerves) and the major artery, vein and nerve for the bone that branch into the individual Haversian and Volkmann’s canals. Unlike the long and short bones, the flat, irregular and sesmoid bones lack these various regions.

Procedures:     1.      Obtain the sagittal-cut long bone     2.      Write the regions of the long bone on the stickers                 a.       Regions of long bone: Cortical Bone, Trabecular Bone, Articulating Edge, Epiphysis, Diaphysis, Metaphysis, Medullary Canal, Area of Red Bone Marrow, Area of Yellow Bone Marrow

3.      Working with your lab group:         a.       Select a group leader

i.     Group leader will call of one of the region and nominate a member of the group to identify that region with the correct sticker ii.     If the region is correctly identified ask one specific feature associated with that area and then move to the next region and new identifier. If the region is not correctly identified, the group should correct the mistake and the person will go again on the next region. iii.     Continue to rotate through the group until all regions have been identified. Have your instructor check your work.

Activity 2: The Axial Skeleton

The axial skeleton is comprised of the skull, vertebrae, costal cage, and pelvis.

A) Bones and Landmarks of the Skull         The skull is the conglomeration of fused bones of the cranium and face.  This region can be further broken into two distinct sub-regions that serve to protect the cerebral cortex and the special sense organs and anchor the muscles of mastication or facial movements (necessary for non-verbal cueing and communication). The first sub-region, cranial bones, makes a vault of bone that encompasses and protects cerebral cortex and contains/protects special sense of vision, auditory and vestibular organs.  The second sub-region, facial bones, makes oral opening that begins gastrointestinal tract and allows for beginning of mechanical digestion and contains/protects special senses olfaction organs.

Procedures:

1.      Obtain the skull from the Bone box 2.      Working with your lab group:

a.       Write the names of the bones of the cranium and face along with the landmarks that you are responsible for knowing on the stickers

i.     Cranial Bones: Ethmoid Bone, Frontal Bone, Occipital Bone, Parietal Bone, Temporal Bone, Sphenoid Bone, Vomer ii.     Facial Bones: Zygomatic Bone, Nasal Bone, Maxilla, Mandible, Palatine Bone

iii.     Landmarks:

Ethmoid: Cribiform Plate and Olfactory Foramina Occipital Bone: Foramen Magnum, Occiput, Occipital Condyle Sphenoid Bone: Lesser Wing, Greater Wing, Sella Turcica Temporal Bone: Styloid Process, Mastoid Process, External Auditory Meatus (External Acoustic Meatus), Internal Auditory Meatus (Internal Acoustic Meatus), Zygomatic Process Maxilla: Alveolus, Incisive Foramen Mandible: Mental Foramen, Alveolus, Mandibular Condyle

b.      As a group, use the bone atlas and your notes to identify the bones of the cranium and the face

i.     Select a group leader

1.      Group leader will call of one of the landmarks and nominate a member of the group to identify that landmark with the correct sticker 2.      If the landmark is correctly identified move to the next landmark and new identifier. If the landmark is not correctly identified, the group should correct the mistake and the person will go again on the next landmark. 3.      Continue to rotate through the group until all landmarks have been identified. Have your instructor check your work.

B) Bones and Landmarks of the Vertebral Column         The vertebral column is a chain of 34 bones (24 individual and 2 pairs of 5-fused bones) that performs two distinct functions.  First, serves to form a protective cocoon of the spinal cord.  Second serves as the vertical axis to the erect body posture.  The vertebrae are subdivided into five (5) distinct regions: cervical (top 7-vertebrae, CV1-CV7), thoracic (middle 12-vertebrae, TV1-TV12), lumbar (lower 5-vertebrae, LV1-LV5), sacrum and coccygeal (2-pairs of fused vertebrae that comprise the poster surface of the pelvic bowl).  Within this chain, there are two distinct functional “curves” that allow for erect posture of the thorax and thus the body.  These functional curves are indicated as being kyphosis, or a ventral facing curve, and lorodosis, or a dorsal facing curve.  The kyphosis curve is seen in the vertebrae found in the thoracic and sacrum and coccygeal regions of the vertebrae. While the lorodosis curve is seen in the cervical and lumbar regions.  Together, these curves provide the mechanism for an erect posture of the thorax and thus the body. Based on postural issues and actions of muscles there are pathological curves that can develop within the vertebrae. These include scoliosis, excessive lateral curves, hyperkyphosis (humpback) or hyperlorodosis (swayback).  These curves can lead to kinematic pathologies and in some instances affect the functioning of the internal organs.         The regionalization of vertebrae leads to distinct identification based on the anatomical differences noted in the comparison between the vertebrae. The size of the body of vertebrae and processes will change based on the location, and thus type, of vertebrae that is being discussed.  The anatomical differences are due to the load that the bone must withstand and the amount of muscle and ligament force that is pulling on the various landmarks. The lumbar are larger (more massive), while the cervical are the smallest. The size of the foramen for the spinal cord becomes smaller as move inferior (caudal) through the segments. The lumbar have the smallest foramen, while the cervical have the largest foramen.  Another foramen difference is seen in the cervical vertebrae, where transvers process has a foramen, allowing for the passage of the Vertebral Artery, which is not seen in the thoracic or lumber vertebrae. The angle and direction of the bony landmarks change based on the region of the vertebrae. The spinous process is bifurcated (forked) in the cervical and angled dorsally. There is no bifurcated spine in the thoracic or lumbar. Based on the associated curve, the spinous process will angle from inferiorly and dorsally to more inferiorly and then back towards more dorsally.         There are two specialized cervical vertebrae, CV1 and CV2. These bones allow for movement of the head independent of movement of the remainder of the body. The atlas (CV1) has no body, but has two large articulating processes for the occiput of the cranium to articulate. This anatomical structure allows for elevation and depression of the cranium, shaking head yes or looking upward or downward. The axis (CV2) has limited amount of a body to the vertebrae, principally a superiorly facing spine that articulates with CV1 and allows for axial rotation only, shaking head no or looking over your shoulder to the side of the body.

1.      Obtain the set of vertebrae from the Bone box 2.      Working with your lab group:

a.       Identify the vertebrae based on the classification

i.     Bones: Cervical, Thoracic, Lumber, Sacrum, Coccygeal

b.      Align the vertebrae so that you have a completed vertebral column and angle the bones to generate the 2-kinematic curves.

c.      Compare your curve to the reference skeleton for your group

d.       Write the landmarks of the vertebrae that you are responsible for knowing on the stickers

i.     Landmarks: Pedicle, Lamina, Spinous Process, Transverse Process, Body of Vertebra, Vertebral Foramen, Transverse Foramen (Cervical Only)

e.       As a group, use the bone atlas and your notes to identify the vertebrae

C) Bones and Landmarks of the Costal Cage         The costal cage is the principal anatomical feature that provides shape and morphology to the thorax. The costal cage is made of 2-clavicles, -sternum and 12-paired bones (costal) that articulate (join) ventrally with the sternum and dorsally with the thoracic vertebrae.  It functions to protect the internal organs of the thorax and as an anchorage to point for the upper extremities.  The costals are subdivided into three (3) distinct classification based on how costal articulate with sternum.  There are the “true” costals, or the first 7-costal pairs that articulate directly with the sternum through individual costal cartilage.  Then there are the “false” costals, or pairs 8-10, that will articulate indirectly with the sternum through a single costal cartilage. Last are the “floating” costals, last 2 pairs, which have no articulation with the sternum.         The sternum is comprised of the manubrium, the body of the sternum and the xiphoid process. It functions as an anchor for the muscles of the anterior thorax (pectoral girdle), the clavicle and the costal bones.  The clavicle will (along with the scapula) form a “V-shaped” anchor for the upper extremity to the thorax and the rest of the body.          The clavicle is only held to the thorax through an annular (circular) ligament at the sternum.  There are two (2) articulating surfaces for the clavicle. One is between thorax and clavicle. The other will be between the clavicle and the scapula. This pattern of articulating ensures that the scapula stays anchored to the axial skeleton of the body, and is the only way to keep scapula from falling. The clavicle is generally a very weak bone (limited protective coverage also) but is secured by extremely strong ligaments (annular style), meaning that the bone is more apt to fracture than disarticulate from the sternum.         The shape of the Scapula is situated so that a smooth concave surface will face anteriorly and glide along the posterior surface of the costal gage and a posterior surface with protruding landmarks (the spine) that allows for attaching of muscles from the posterior thorax that connects the upper extremity to the rest of the body.  The Scapula shape and minimal ligamentous anchors allow for the maximal mobility of the scapula and the upper extremity.  There is only one (1) point of attachment through three ligaments between the scapula and the clavicle. Along with a group of ligaments and 4-muscles that forms a dynamic attachment between the scapula and humerus, the Rotator Cuff.  The scapula serves as attachment points for muscles that connect the thorax to the upper extremity that occurs via the labrum of the surrounding the Glenoid fossa and the muscles of the rotator cuff.  It will attach indirectly to the thorax via the muscles (trapezius, rhomboideus, and serratus muscles) with an anterior surface primarily a fossa that allows scapula to move across posterior thorax without impingement.

1.      Obtain the set of costals, sternum and costal cartilage, scapula and clavicles from the Bone box 2.      Working with your lab group:

a.       Identify the regions of the sternum

i.     Regions: Manubrium, Body, Xiphoid

b.      Identify the landmarks of the scapula

i.     Spine of Scapula, Glenoid Fossa (Cavity), Acromial Process, Coracoid Process, Supraspinatal Fossa, Infraspinatal Fossa, Subscapular Fossa

c.       Align the costal bones with the costal cartilage and sternum so that you have a complete costal cage.

i.     As you align the costals, note the difference in shape and lengths of the bones as you move from the 1 st costal through the 10 th costal.

ii.     Be sure that you are able to name them correctly “Side of Body Costal #”

d.      Align the clavicle with the Manubrium of the sternum e.       Compare your completed costal cage to the reference skeleton for your group

D) Bones and Landmarks of the Pelvis         The pelvis is formed through the conglomeration of 3-fused bones (pubis, ischium, ilium) in conjunction with the sacrum and coccygeal vertebrae. The pelvis forms a platform for the axial portion of the skeleton to lie on and anchors the lower extremity to the axial skeleton.  The right and left pelvis can be discussed as being fused at an anterior junction via fibrous articulation (Pubic Symphasis) that allows for independent movement and rotation around each other necessary for walking and running. The fusion and bilateral nature of the bones forms a spherical bowl structure that is sexually dimorphic between males and females based on the necessity to birth, and provides the foundation for gait locomotion (walking, running).         The pelvis, figure 17 a, is a group of fused bones that form the attachment between the lower extremity and the trunk of the body.  The angulation and orientation of the pelvic bones and articulation with the sacrum and coccygeal bones develops into a 3-dimensional “bowl” structure. The 3-D bowl structure of the pelvis and bipedal walking leads to distinct anatomical changes that are seen in the femur during early childhood.  The angulation and orientation ensures that the gluteals are able to stabilize the body during walking and provides a mobile attachment point for the muscles that allow for walk and running gait.  Additionally, the 3-D bowl structure undergoes an orientation and angulation changes during puberty at the ilium that is gender specific.  For females, the ilium growth during puberty is more laterally than superiorly, while the male growth has the ilium elongating more superiorly than laterally. The resultant growth leads to a wider pelvis for females and a narrower pelvis for males in comparison between each other.  The orientation change at the ilium during puberty leads to various lower extremity kinematic issues that might arise for the female that might not be seen in males.          Procedures:

1.      Observe the male and female pelvis displayed by the instructor.  Note the differences in the true pelvis and the angle of the pubic symphysis that allows you to indicate a male or a female pelvis 2.      Obtain the pelvis bones from the bone box 3.      Working with your lab group:

a.       Identify the three bones that make up each side of the pelvis

i.     Ilium, Ischium, Pubis (Pubic Bone)

b.      Write the landmarks of the vertebrae that you are responsible for knowing on the stickers

i.     Acetabulum

ii.     Obturator Foramen

iii.     Ilium: Iliac Crest, Anterior Superior Iliac Spine, Anterior Inferior Iliac Spine, Posterior Superior Iliac Spine, Posterior Inferior Iliac Spine

iv.     Ischium: Ischial Tuberosity, Sciatic Notch

v.      Pubis: Pubic Symphysis

c.       Using the anatomy atlas and your notes

Activity 3: Appendicular Skeleton

The appendicular skeleton is comprised of a series of bones of the paired extremities of the body (bones have a mated pair on the contralateral side of the body).  The upper extremity includes the scapula, humerus, ulna, radius, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges.  The lower extremity includes the femur (and patella), the tibia, fibula, tarsals (tarsi), metatarsals, and phalanges.  The upper extremity and lower extremity bony architecture mirror each other in number and patterns of movement.  The bones of the lower extremity appear to be different but that is simply due to these bones being longer and more robust than the bones of the upper extremity. A) Bones and Landmarks of the Upper Extremity         The Humerus is the proximal bone of the upper extremity.  The humerus forms the principle site of attachment for the movement of the upper extremity.  The convex articulating head of the humerus in the concave articulating surface of the Glenoid fossa combined with the shape and tautness of the ligaments forming the labrum allow for the humerus to have the maximal degrees of freedom of movement of all bones in the skeleton. The landmarks of the humerus serve as attachment points for the muscles of the Pectoral and Deltoid Girdles that allow for movement of the upper extremity.         The Radius and Ulna are the paired bones of the antebrachium.  The bones are held in place by the interosseous membrane that tautly holds the two bone together. Even holding the bones together, the Radius and Ulna are able to independently move and the interosseous membrane allows for the movement of the Radius around the Ulna without separation of the two bones.         The Carpals are formed by two rows of arched bones that comprise the wrist.  The arrangement of the carpals form a domed (concave) series of rows of bones that allow for a high degree of freedom in movement by allowing bones to glide and spin around each other Stemming from the carpals are 5-rays of bones (digital rays) comprised on the Metacarpals that form the hand and the phalanges that form the fingers.  The metacarpals are indicated numerically by Roman Numerals (I through V) with I is the Polis (thumb) and V being Digiti Minimi (pinky finger). The phalanges are named proximal, medial and distal for digits II through V and only proximal and distal for digit I. Procedures:

1.      Obtain the bones of the upper extremity from the Bone box (note the carpals, metacarpals and phalanges are wired together) 2.      Write the name of the bones and landmarks of the bone that you are responsible for knowing on the stickers

a.       Bones: Humerus, Radius, Ulna, Carpal Bones, Metacarpals, Phalanges b.      Landmarks: Humerus: Head of Humerus, Surgical and Anatomical Neck of Humerus, Greater Tubericle, Lesser Tubericle, Intratubericle Groove, Deltoid Tuberosity, Medial Epicondyle, Lateral Epicondyle, Trochlea, Capitulum, Olecranon Fossa Ulna: Olecranon Process, Trochlear Notch, Ulnar Styloid Radius: Radial Styloid

3.      Working with your lab group:

a.       Identify the bones of the upper extremity b.      Align the bones so that you have a complete upper extremity, determine which side of the body the extremity would be found. c.       Compare your extremity to the reference skeleton for your group d.      Use the anatomy atlas and your notes to identify the bones of the upper extremity

B) Bones and Landmarks of the Lower Extremity         Femur is the largest bone in the body.  This is due to the bone acting as one of three bones in the lower extremity that is responsible for weight bearing. The bone undergoes a change in the angle of orientation during early childhood.  The change is particularly seen at angulation of the femoral neck. The angle of the neck and the difference between medial and lateral condyles of the femur ensures that when standing in an erect posture the center of gravity is aligned with the mid-sagittal line (long-axis) of the body.  The degree of angulation (Q-angle) is based on the breadth of the pelvic bowl, where those that have a wider pelvis also having a greater angle of change seen at the neck of the bone. The head of the femur and acetabulum of the pelvis have similar shape to what is seen at the Glenoid fossa of the scapula and head of the humerus.  Yet, the amount of movement allowed is much less here, as the femur is held within the opening of the acetabulum and movement is restricted by the tautness of the capsule ligaments.  This ensures that the blood vessels entering through the femoral foramen and within the neck are not disrupted. Key as disruption to perfusion must be continuous to the bone and disruption leads to necrosis of the tissue with the neck of the femur and may necessitate replace of the hip.         The tibia and fibula are the bones that comprise the leg portion of the lower extremity.  The tibia and fibula, just like the radius and the ulna, are held together medially via a taut band of fascia (interosseous membrane) that allows the fibula to move around the tibia.  This is key to allowing for dexterous movement of the foot while still allowing weight bearing to occur through the tibia.  Because of its role in weight bearing, the tibia is much more robust than the fibula and serves as the connection between the thigh (femur) and pelvis with the tarsi (ankle).         The distal end of the tibia and fibula end at different lengths relative to each other that impact the kinematics of the joint. This difference in bone lengths impact the degree of movement that can occur at the ankle that limits the amount of eversion and pronation, while allowing for a maximal amount of inversion and supination. An issue that must be remembered when looking at injuries that might occur to the leg.  Additionally, the flow of blood through the interosseous membrane and the muscle lines of pull from the triceps sural can lead to inflammation issues within the fascia for runners.         The bones of the distal end of the lower extremity, the tarsal (tarsi), metatarsals, and phalanges, are comprised of rows of bones that are short and irregular in shape. The Calcaneus and Talus serve as the key bones in standing weight bearing. The bones of the tarsi and metatarsal are not only arranged into rays of bones but form a concave structure of bone that is held together via annular ligaments with the placement of the Navicular Bone (keystone of the arch) and on the plantar surface of the foot taut bands of ligament and tendon (Plantar fascia).  The concavity of the arrangement of the bones longitudinally and transversely along the length of the foot form the arch of the foot. The arch of the foot forms a weight bearing, shock absorbing and spring lever system for use during locomotion.  The shape and pattern of the ligaments and tendons allow for the storage of potential energy that upon the propulsion of the limb in gait provides for greater kinetic energy of motion. You can think of the arch as a flat spring, or diving board. The greater the flex in the board the higher the dive will be propelled upward and away from the board. Due to the storage and return of energy to walking and running the energy transfer to movement is greater than the energy load. This return becomes more pronounced at higher speeds and makes running more energetically efficient than walking at the same speed.

a.       Bones: Femur, Patella, Tibia, Fibula, Calcaneus, Talus, Metatarsal, Phalanges b.      Landmarks: Femur: Head of Femur, Neck of Femur, Greater Trochanter, Lesser Trochanter, Intertrochanteric Crest, Linea Aspera, Medial Epicondyle, Medial Condyle, Lateral Epicondyle, Lateral Condyle, Femoral (Intercondylar) Groove Tibia: Tibial (Medial) Malleolus, Tibial Tuberosity, Tibial Plateau (Condyles), Fibula: Fibular (Lateral) Malleolus

a.       Identify the bones of the upper extremity b.      Align the bones so that you have a complete lower extremity, determine which side of the body the extremity would be found. c.       Compare your extremity to the reference skeleton for your group d.      Use the anatomy atlas and your notes to identify the bones and landmarks of the lower extremity

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  6. skeletal system| कंकाल तंत्र| bones| anatomy and physiology| Kiran maurya

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  1. Unit 3 Lab: Skeletal System Assignment

    Unit 3 Lab: Skeletal System Assignment Demonstrate: Skeletal system. Estimated time to complete: 2 hours. Skeleton Basics. Fill in the blank to the following questions: a. The three major regions of a long bone are: proximal epiphysis, diaphysis, distal epiphysis b.

  2. Unit 3 Lab Assignment-Completed.docx

    Unit 3 Lab Assignment-Completed.docx - Unit 3 Lab: Skeletal System Assignment Demonstrate: Skeletal system Estimated time to complete: 2 hours Skeleton | Course Hero Unit 3 Lab Assignment-Completed.docx - Unit 3 Lab: Skeletal... Doc Preview Pages Identified Q&As 6 Solutions available Total views 68 Herzing University SC SC 146 HighnessTreeElephant3

  3. Lab Unit 3: Skeletal Pre-lab Assignment Flashcards

    Canal: A Tubular passage or tunnel in a bone. (Ex: Orbital fissures behind the eye) Condyle: Around knob that articulates with another bone. (Ex: Occipital condyles of the skull) Crest: A narrow ridge of bone. (Ex: Iliac crest of the pelvis) Facet: A smooth, flat. slightly concave or convex articular surface. Foramen:

  4. Unit 3 Lab Assignment.docx

    Unit 3 Lab: Skeletal System Assignment Demonstrate: Skeletal system Estimated time to complete: 2 hours Skeleton Basics 1.

  5. A&P Lab: Unit 3

    A&P Lab: Unit 3 - Skeletal System. Flashcards; Learn; Test; Match; Q-Chat; Flashcards; ... Circulatory System (Heart and Blood Vessels) Teacher 64 terms. charles2685. Preview. Spinal Final Cahoot #1 ... Preview. A&P Exam 3 Chapters 6-7. 180 terms. Bxby_Lxhna. Preview. Spinal Nerve Pictures (Lab), Spinal Cord Anatomy Pictures Practical. 37 terms ...

  6. 7.8: Laboratory Activities and Assignment

    3. Label spongy bone structures shown in this micrograph (arrows): trabecula. bone marrow. 4. Identify the shape of the bones shown below as: long, short, flat, sesamoid or irregular. Write your answers on the spaces provided. 5. Name five bones of the axial skeleton and five bones of the appendicular skeleton.

  7. Unit 3 Skeletal System

    Lab 4 Cell Answers 2 - cells; Microsoft Word - Mitosis 1; Chapter 22 Answer Keys - cells; Module 07 Assignment Sensory Perception Disorder; Blood Definition and Function Summary; A&P2 Hormones; Preview text. Unit 3: Skeletal System ... Unit 3: Skeletal System. Structure and Functions of Bones: Bones provide structural support, protect internal ...

  8. Anatomy & Physiology Lab Quiz 3- Skeletal system Diagram

    Skeletal system, axial skeleton, appendicular skeleton, hip, shoulder, knee, and elbow joint Learn with flashcards, games, and more — for free.

  9. 2.5: Lab Exercise 6- The Skeletal System ...

    Lab Summary: In this lab, you will explore the macroscopic and microscopic anatomy and physiology of bones and their tissues. You will also review functions of some key accessory structures of the skeletal system, including the locations and functions of ligaments, tendons, hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, and fibrocartilage.

  10. Unit 3 Lab Assignment.docx

    Unit 3 Lab: Skeletal System Assignment Demonstrate: Skeletal system Estimated time to complete: 2 hours Skeleton Basics 1. Fill in the blank to the following questions: a. The three major regions of a long bone are: Diaphysis (shaft) and Epiphysis on each side and the metaphysis. b.

  11. BSC2346L Module 03 Lab Worksheet

    Part 02 Procedure: Examination of Bone Tissue Locate the specimens of bone tissue and examine the characteristics and record your observations below: A) Bone soaked in vinegar: B) Bone baked in the oven: C) Spongy and compact bone: Part 03 Procedure: Gross Bone Identification

  12. Anatomy and Physiology Unit 3 Skeletal System Flashcards

    1. Hyaline (cartilage model) 2.periosteum form. 3.diaphysis form. 4.Epiphysis form. 5.bone grows in length. 6.maintaining. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Skeletal system includes?, Why are bones organs?, What contribute to properties of bone matrix? and more.

  13. Lab 5 Musculoskeletal Anatomy Part 1: The Skeleton and Bones of the

    Activity 3: Appendicular Skeleton; Objectives: At the end of this lab, you will be able to… 1. Describe the general histology of the bone based on the type of bone (cortical or trabecular) tissue 2. Describe the general structure of bones of body based on classification of the shape of the bone (long, short, flat, sesmoid, or irregular). 3.

  14. Unit 3 Lab Assignment 1 .docx

    Unit 3 Lab Assignment 1 .docx - Unit 3 Lab: Skeletal System Assignment Demonstrate: Skeletal system Estimated time to complete: 2 hours Skeleton | Course Hero Unit 3 Lab Assignment 1 .docx - Unit 3 Lab: Skeletal... Doc Preview Pages 2 Identified Q&As 6 Solutions available Total views 6 Herzing University SC SC MISC ProfessorSquirrelPerson713

  15. Unit 3: Skeletal System Study Guide Flashcards

    1. Support: framework for support and anchor, pillar (legs) to trunk 2. Protection: skull protects brain, ribs protect lungs 3. Body Movement: bones acts as mechanical levers 4. Blood Cell Formation: Hematopoiesis in red bone marrow 5. Storage: fat in internal cavities, mineral storage of Inorganic Salts (Ca, P) in bone matrix

  16. Unit 3 Lab Assignment.docx

    Unit 3 Lab Assignment.docx - Unit 3 Lab: Skeletal System Assignment Demonstrate: Skeletal system Estimated time to complete: 2 hours Skeleton Basics 1. | Course Hero Unit 3 Lab Assignment.docx - Unit 3 Lab: Skeletal System... Doc Preview Identified Q&As 5 Solutions available Total views 24 Herzing University SC SC 146 MinisterSpiderMaster50

  17. Unit 3 Lab Assignment answers .docx

    Unit 3 Lab: Skeletal System Assignment Demonstrate: Skeletal system Estimated time to complete: 2 hours Skeleton Basics 1. Fill in the blank to the following questions: a. The three major regions of a long bone are: Epiphysis, Diaphysis, Metaphysis b.

  18. Unit 3: The Skeletal System Flashcards

    Chondritis. inflammation of cartilage. Arthrectomy. surgical removal of a joint. Cranimalacia. abnormal softening of the skull. Osteorrhaphy. the surgical suturing, or wiring together, of bones. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Ossification, Osteoclast, Osteoblast and more.

  19. Unit 3 Lab Assignment CORRECT ONE.docx

    Unit 3 Lab Assignment CORRECT ONE.docx - Unit 3 Lab: Skeletal System Assignment Demonstrate: Skeletal system Estimated time to complete: 2 | Course Hero Unit 3 Lab Assignment CORRECT ONE.docx - Unit 3 Lab:... Doc Preview Pages 2 Identified Q&As 6 Solutions available Total views 2 Herzing University SC SC 146 arlashataylor 3/21/2021

  20. Skeletal System Unit 2 Exam Lab Flashcards

    spongy bone, bone cells in small pockets. Lacunae. spongy bone, small pockets where osteocytes sit. Marrow. spongy bone, soft tissue found in the medullary cavity of long bones, there are 2 types of marrow, yellow and red. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Diaphysis, Epiphyses, Epiphyseal line and more.