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Writing a Research Paper

Types of research papers.

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Although research paper assignments may vary widely, there are essentially two basic types of research papers. These are argumentative and analytical .

Argumentative

In an argumentative research paper, a student both states the topic they will be exploring and immediately establishes the position they will argue regarding that topic in a thesis statement . This type of paper hopes to persuade its reader to adopt the view presented.

 Example : a paper that argues the merits of early exposure to reading for children would be an argumentative essay.

An analytical research paper states the topic that the writer will be exploring, usually in the form of a question, initially taking a neutral stance. The body of the paper will present multifaceted information and, ultimately, the writer will state their conclusion, based on the information that has unfolded throughout the course of the essay. This type of paper hopes to offer a well-supported critical analysis without necessarily persuading the reader to any particular way of thinking.

Example : a paper that explores the use of metaphor in one of Shakespeare's sonnets would be an example of an analytical essay.

*Please note that this LibGuide will primarily be concerning itself with argumentative or rhetorical research papers.

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Types of Research Papers

In this blog, we will discuss types of research papers. So, let’s get started.

When you study in university or college, you will have to write a research paper because it is an important part of the curriculum. In general, when you will produce this academic paper, you will have to do research on numerous technical, scientific, or social components of a phenomenon, and then organize the results. It is not simple. If you have never done academic writing before, the task may be difficult or even impossible. What makes it challenging?

There are numerous problems that make the process more difficult, and the majority of people get stopped at the initial stage – selecting appropriate research paper topics. Others are unable to complete the assignment on their own.  Fortunately, there is an easy answer for the second problem, as there are numerous professional essay writer services that can assist you with your paper. All you have to do is ask them to “ write my research paper .” For some of you, it might be a good option.

What is Research Paper?

  • Table of Contents

A Research paper is a piece of academic writing or a long essay that presents the original and independent research of the author on any topic and the analysis and interpretation of the research findings. The research paper must be clear, concise, focussed, structured and backed up by evidence. It has a formal tone and style, but it is not complex and does not require the use of long sentences and complicated vocabulary because its purpose is to aid the reader’s understanding. Here we will be knowing about the “Types of Research papers”.

Research papers are of different types and identifying what type of research paper to use is a way critical task. The most suitable research paper type is always chosen to keep in mind your research paper topics, your research methodologies and the manner by which you analyze your data.

Top 10 Different types of Research Papers

the different types of research papers

Analytical Research Paper

Argumentative research paper.

  • Cause and Effect Research Paper

Experimental Research Paper

Problem-solution research paper, report paper, survey research paper.

  • Definition Research papers
  • Compare and contrast Research papers
  • Interpretative

the different types of research papers

Describe multiple points of view → Analyze all points → Conclude.

Analytical Research Papers imply an analysis of facts, events, issues, and ideas. In this, the researcher first describes multiple points of view pertaining to the research problem, then analyze all the described points by collecting relevant information from various other researchers, and finally concludes. During Analytical Research, the researcher must remain neutral i.e. paper should not favor one point and oppose another.

In Analytic Research Paper, the researcher does not face difficulty in describing multiple points of view but in analyzing them. There are many Homework Help websites available to ease your work. It is the first type of research paper.

the different types of research papers

Describe the problem from two different viewpoints → Propose pros and cons → Give preference to one.

An argumentative Research Paper, as the name suggests, involves arguments about the research topic from two viewpoints. In this type, the researcher must describe the problem with two opposing viewpoints, analyze them to propose their pros and cons, and finally supports one viewpoint. This research paper mainly focuses on getting the readers to favor your point of view. It is the second type of research paper.

Cause and effect research papers

the different types of research papers

Describe situation → Present causes/effects → Draw a conclusion

This paper is usually assigned to the freshers. The main aim of this paper is to teach the researcher on how to write a research paper. This paper includes

  • A detailed study of various research topics
  • Organization of the writing process
  • Application of certain styles to text
  • Citations and references

In this research paper, the researcher first describes the problem, then explain its causes and effects and finally gives the conclusion. It is the third types of research papers.

the different types of research papers

Experiment → Share useful experience → Provide data and sum up.

While writing an Experimental research paper, the researcher must describe the whole experimental process in detail. In this, the researcher conducts the experiment, then shares his useful experiences, and then finally provides the relevant data and sums up his research. These research papers are usually written for biology , chemistry, physics, psychology, and sociology. In this research paper, the researcher must describe his experiment with supporting data and experimental analysis.

the different types of research papers

Describe the problem → Propose a solution → Defend it

As the name suggests, the Problem-Solution Research Paper aims at finding solutions to certain problems. In this research paper, the researcher describes the problem, analyze the available information, find some possible solutions and prove their effectiveness by giving examples, details, statistical data etc.

the different types of research papers

Outline the work done on a particular topic –> Sum up findings

In the Report Paper, the researcher needs to gather all the information about the research topic, describes the most valuable characteristics of data and finally sum up his findings. This paper aims at providing all the facts and necessary information about the research topic.

Quick Links

  • An Absolute Guide On How To Write A Research Paper Outline
  • Best Tips On How To Write An Introduction In A Research Paper

the different types of research papers

Conduct a survey → Analyze findings → Draw conclusions

In this paper, the researcher has to do the research, interpret data, analyze findings and then finally draw conclusions. In this, the survey is conducted by asking questions to respondents. This analyzes behavior in different conditions.

8. Definition Research papers

It is known as self–an explanatory research paper because, in this kind of research paper, you aren’t required to stay neutral or support one side. The foremost objective is to deliver details about the topic offered without researching and reviewing the studies of further researchers at all. You can contain additional data from additional sources even without analyzing them entirely.

9. Compare and contrast Research papers

It is another type of research paper. These are used to compare two distinct researchers or writers with different perspectives. For example, two businessmen are compared to where their position is researched. The most crucial thing is that you have to represent both sides’ opinions in your research paper, but don’t forget to compare and contrast both sides and, in the end, support one side.

10. Interpretative

the different types of research papers

Students mostly write these research papers to share their ideas and knowledge from researching a certain field or case. For example, a literature student is invited to report a research paper on the poetry they have read, and then they have to compose this research paper. Or a company case in any analysis course. The most significant thing in this kind of research paper is that the points the student has written based on it and has supported the data should be reasonable.

What are the 3 types of research reports?

The research report is the report which records all collected data. Statisticians or researchers organize it. They analyze the data and then collect it to make a company report. All data collected by analyzers is reliable and original because it is organized with proper research and analysis. Moreover, the data is contained in two forms: it may be in the form of qualitative or whether it is in the form of survey.

1. Original Research Report

It is a primary source research report. Original research is based on the researchers because they have written it themselves. They did the proper study to write an original research report data. These are the following points that researchers describe in their report.

  • Research question.
  • Purpose of the study.
  • Describe their hypothesis.
  • Also, they give the details of their research methods. 
  • Follow the IMRAD structure.

2. Methodologies Research Report Method

It provides the following data;

  • how to conduct the research.
  • Various research methods.
  • Reasons for choosing those methods.

3. Short Reports or Letters

These consist of vital details about a topic to report to a reader. A short report may either be written or oral in the report structure of a letter or memo. It typically consists of an overview of the report, a defined goal, a brief background, and a determination.

What Are The 4 Types Of Report?

A good report is a report that fully avoids unclear words, is written in simple language, and also avoids vagueness. Its main message should be self-explanatory. The following are the types of external reports.

What Is The Format Of Common Research Paper?

10 Parts Of A Common Research Paper Format

  • The Cover page/Title page
  • Introduction
  • Body paragraphs (research description and methods)
  • Bibliography/reference list
  • Appendix (if any add-ons were available)

Conclusion (Types Of Research Papers)

These all are different types of research paper. If you have any queries or want any other information regarding research papers, please do tell us in the comment section. If you are having any difficulty in determining the type of research paper or in making a research paper feel free to take Research Paper help from our experts

Types Of Research Papers FAQ

What is a good research title.

A good research title should give an idea of the content of the research and should be interesting.

Where can I find reliable sources for research Papers?

Trusted and well-known Journals and books that are written by researchers are the most reliable sources for writing research papers.

What are the 4 goals of research?

Description, prediction, explanation, and application are four goals of the research.

What are the most common errors made in research papers?

Usage of irrelevant tables and figures, lack of strong thesis statements, lack of planning, weak supporting statements are the most common errors in research papers.

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Types of Research – Explained with Examples

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  • By DiscoverPhDs
  • October 2, 2020

Types of Research Design

Types of Research

Research is about using established methods to investigate a problem or question in detail with the aim of generating new knowledge about it.

It is a vital tool for scientific advancement because it allows researchers to prove or refute hypotheses based on clearly defined parameters, environments and assumptions. Due to this, it enables us to confidently contribute to knowledge as it allows research to be verified and replicated.

Knowing the types of research and what each of them focuses on will allow you to better plan your project, utilises the most appropriate methodologies and techniques and better communicate your findings to other researchers and supervisors.

Classification of Types of Research

There are various types of research that are classified according to their objective, depth of study, analysed data, time required to study the phenomenon and other factors. It’s important to note that a research project will not be limited to one type of research, but will likely use several.

According to its Purpose

Theoretical research.

Theoretical research, also referred to as pure or basic research, focuses on generating knowledge , regardless of its practical application. Here, data collection is used to generate new general concepts for a better understanding of a particular field or to answer a theoretical research question.

Results of this kind are usually oriented towards the formulation of theories and are usually based on documentary analysis, the development of mathematical formulas and the reflection of high-level researchers.

Applied Research

Here, the goal is to find strategies that can be used to address a specific research problem. Applied research draws on theory to generate practical scientific knowledge, and its use is very common in STEM fields such as engineering, computer science and medicine.

This type of research is subdivided into two types:

  • Technological applied research : looks towards improving efficiency in a particular productive sector through the improvement of processes or machinery related to said productive processes.
  • Scientific applied research : has predictive purposes. Through this type of research design, we can measure certain variables to predict behaviours useful to the goods and services sector, such as consumption patterns and viability of commercial projects.

Methodology Research

According to your Depth of Scope

Exploratory research.

Exploratory research is used for the preliminary investigation of a subject that is not yet well understood or sufficiently researched. It serves to establish a frame of reference and a hypothesis from which an in-depth study can be developed that will enable conclusive results to be generated.

Because exploratory research is based on the study of little-studied phenomena, it relies less on theory and more on the collection of data to identify patterns that explain these phenomena.

Descriptive Research

The primary objective of descriptive research is to define the characteristics of a particular phenomenon without necessarily investigating the causes that produce it.

In this type of research, the researcher must take particular care not to intervene in the observed object or phenomenon, as its behaviour may change if an external factor is involved.

Explanatory Research

Explanatory research is the most common type of research method and is responsible for establishing cause-and-effect relationships that allow generalisations to be extended to similar realities. It is closely related to descriptive research, although it provides additional information about the observed object and its interactions with the environment.

Correlational Research

The purpose of this type of scientific research is to identify the relationship between two or more variables. A correlational study aims to determine whether a variable changes, how much the other elements of the observed system change.

According to the Type of Data Used

Qualitative research.

Qualitative methods are often used in the social sciences to collect, compare and interpret information, has a linguistic-semiotic basis and is used in techniques such as discourse analysis, interviews, surveys, records and participant observations.

In order to use statistical methods to validate their results, the observations collected must be evaluated numerically. Qualitative research, however, tends to be subjective, since not all data can be fully controlled. Therefore, this type of research design is better suited to extracting meaning from an event or phenomenon (the ‘why’) than its cause (the ‘how’).

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research study delves into a phenomena through quantitative data collection and using mathematical, statistical and computer-aided tools to measure them . This allows generalised conclusions to be projected over time.

Types of Research Methodology

According to the Degree of Manipulation of Variables

Experimental research.

It is about designing or replicating a phenomenon whose variables are manipulated under strictly controlled conditions in order to identify or discover its effect on another independent variable or object. The phenomenon to be studied is measured through study and control groups, and according to the guidelines of the scientific method.

Non-Experimental Research

Also known as an observational study, it focuses on the analysis of a phenomenon in its natural context. As such, the researcher does not intervene directly, but limits their involvement to measuring the variables required for the study. Due to its observational nature, it is often used in descriptive research.

Quasi-Experimental Research

It controls only some variables of the phenomenon under investigation and is therefore not entirely experimental. In this case, the study and the focus group cannot be randomly selected, but are chosen from existing groups or populations . This is to ensure the collected data is relevant and that the knowledge, perspectives and opinions of the population can be incorporated into the study.

According to the Type of Inference

Deductive investigation.

In this type of research, reality is explained by general laws that point to certain conclusions; conclusions are expected to be part of the premise of the research problem and considered correct if the premise is valid and the inductive method is applied correctly.

Inductive Research

In this type of research, knowledge is generated from an observation to achieve a generalisation. It is based on the collection of specific data to develop new theories.

Hypothetical-Deductive Investigation

It is based on observing reality to make a hypothesis, then use deduction to obtain a conclusion and finally verify or reject it through experience.

Descriptive Research Design

According to the Time in Which it is Carried Out

Longitudinal study (also referred to as diachronic research).

It is the monitoring of the same event, individual or group over a defined period of time. It aims to track changes in a number of variables and see how they evolve over time. It is often used in medical, psychological and social areas .

Cross-Sectional Study (also referred to as Synchronous Research)

Cross-sectional research design is used to observe phenomena, an individual or a group of research subjects at a given time.

According to The Sources of Information

Primary research.

This fundamental research type is defined by the fact that the data is collected directly from the source, that is, it consists of primary, first-hand information.

Secondary research

Unlike primary research, secondary research is developed with information from secondary sources, which are generally based on scientific literature and other documents compiled by another researcher.

Action Research Methods

According to How the Data is Obtained

Documentary (cabinet).

Documentary research, or secondary sources, is based on a systematic review of existing sources of information on a particular subject. This type of scientific research is commonly used when undertaking literature reviews or producing a case study.

Field research study involves the direct collection of information at the location where the observed phenomenon occurs.

From Laboratory

Laboratory research is carried out in a controlled environment in order to isolate a dependent variable and establish its relationship with other variables through scientific methods.

Mixed-Method: Documentary, Field and/or Laboratory

Mixed research methodologies combine results from both secondary (documentary) sources and primary sources through field or laboratory research.

Significance of the Study

In this post you’ll learn what the significance of the study means, why it’s important, where and how to write one in your paper or thesis with an example.

PhD Research Fieldwork

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What is a research paper?

the different types of research papers

A research paper is a paper that makes an argument about a topic based on research and analysis.

Any paper requiring the writer to research a particular topic is a research paper. Unlike essays, which are often based largely on opinion and are written from the author's point of view, research papers are based in fact.

A research paper requires you to form an opinion on a topic, research and gain expert knowledge on that topic, and then back up your own opinions and assertions with facts found through your thorough research.

➡️ Read more about  different types of research papers .

What is the difference between a research paper and a thesis?

A thesis is a large paper, or multi-chapter work, based on a topic relating to your field of study.

A thesis is a document students of higher education write to obtain an academic degree or qualification. Usually, it is longer than a research paper and takes multiple years to complete.

Generally associated with graduate/postgraduate studies, it is carried out under the supervision of a professor or other academic of the university.

A major difference between a research paper and a thesis is that:

  • a research paper presents certain facts that have already been researched and explained by others
  • a thesis starts with a certain scholarly question or statement, which then leads to further research and new findings

This means that a thesis requires the author to input original work and their own findings in a certain field, whereas the research paper can be completed with extensive research only.

➡️ Getting ready to start a research paper or thesis? Take a look at our guides on how to start a research paper or how to come up with a topic for your thesis .

Frequently Asked Questions about research papers

Take a look at this list of the top 21 Free Online Journal and Research Databases , such as ScienceOpen , Directory of Open Access Journals , ERIC , and many more.

Mason Porter, Professor at UCLA, explains in this forum post the main reasons to write a research paper:

  • To create new knowledge and disseminate it.
  • To teach science and how to write about it in an academic style.
  • Some practical benefits: prestige, establishing credentials, requirements for grants or to help one get a future grant proposal, and so on.

Generally, people involved in the academia. Research papers are mostly written by higher education students and professional researchers.

Yes, a research paper is the same as a scientific paper. Both papers have the same purpose and format.

A major difference between a research paper and a thesis is that the former presents certain facts that have already been researched and explained by others, whereas the latter starts with a certain scholarly question or statement, which then leads to further research and new findings.

Related Articles

the different types of research papers

Different Types Of Research Papers

Table of contents

  • 1 Analytical Research Papers
  • 2 Argumentative or Persuasive Research Papers
  • 3 Definition Research Papers
  • 4 Compare and Contrast Papers
  • 5 Cause and Effect Papers
  • 7 Survey Research Papers
  • 8 Interpretative Paper
  • 9 The Main Points When Writing Research Papers

Academic time is a period of great challenges. The most difficult ones concern the production of creative, sizeable, and meaningful works. To do so, the student must find the necessary information and choose the key thoughts to develop in their text. The most responsible thing is to put all the data together logically, consistently, and concisely. Moreover, each university (college) puts forward unique formatting requirements.

First, the subject of the document subject determines the basic points. Thus, lawyers necessarily refer to the norms of laws in their work. Mathematicians operate with formulas and calculations. Philosophers are freer and rely on their own conclusions and thoughts. Depending on the types of research papers, this affects the structure, format, and narration style. Preparing a student paper seems complicated, long, and boring. However, this process can bring pleasure! In this article, we will share information about different types of research projects to help students easily create academic papers.

Analytical Research Papers

The main task of writing a paper is teaching the student how to think. Thus, the two main types of research papers ─ analytical and argumentative ─ rely on facts to process. The differences between these academic papers seem non-obvious at first. Therefore, we will consider each of them in turn. Analytical type of work work assumes the deepest possible immersion in the subject (topic). Here are the main components of analytical research papers:

  • The main concept can be broken down into additional topics (categories).
  • Critical thinking becomes the basis for interpreting the data obtained.
  • They are a mix of information: scientific data and literature are intertwined with contemporary ones.

No wonder students frequently need academic paper assistance when preparing such texts for the first time. A specialist can quickly and accurately gather and present the necessary information according to the requirements. If you are struggling with what is an analytical research paper, we`ll give you simple advice. Consistency is what will help add readability to your paper. Keeping in mind the principle of “one paragraph / one thought” , you will not get confused by the information. This approach helps to keep the story logical while you are not as familiar with the different types of research articles. When you master working with analytics, writing college papers will become easier.

Argumentative or Persuasive Research Papers

Actually, there are multiple genres of scientific papers with mixed formats. We will now examine argumentative (persuasive), often confused with analytical texts. However, this type of research paper has notable features:

  • They are based strictly on facts.
  • Each statement is reasoned.
  • Several sources support statements.

In contrast to the previous one, the focus is on conveying a thought and convincing the reader of it. If you are a medical student, you know biology research papers rely on survey data, statistics, and professors’ opinions. A quality medical paper excludes theories and speculations. For example, they rely on successful cases when they want to convey the effectiveness of a new drug or treatment regimen. You can read transcripts of legal proceedings: it gives a great insight into how argument structure works. For example, some parts of the sensational court hearings of actor Johnny Depp were published online. And later, they became part of the student papers of future lawyers.

The main thing to realize is that different types of research papers also have different purposes. The format should not be perceived as a limitation. Following the structure and key principles allows one to convey the key messages. For example, argumentation is especially good when conveying a controversial or unpopular idea. You are sort of practicing objections with the reader by factualizing them.

Definition Research Papers

During the studies, you may meet opposing types of academic papers. One kind may give more freedom for thoughts and manifestations. The other requires the author to be as objective as possible. This type of document, as the name implies, emphasizes informativeness. To understand the concept of such texts, note the following research paper topics . The title often already contains the main idea:

  • “Fundamentals of pathogenic bacterial development”;
  • “Principles of artificial intelligence”;
  • “Legal aspects of relationship regulation”.

The main author’s task here is to transfer information. Usually, here comes the difficulty of choosing interesting and relevant data. That is why you can often ask yourself: who can write my research paper per all guidelines and professor’s expectations?

People who have not faced the need to prepare a text consider this task simple. First and foremost, writing a plan makes composing study papers easier. Depending on the requirements, highlight 5-7 main facts that need to be described. When you have a draft ready, adding additional information becomes less challenging.

Compare and Contrast Papers

Success is close when you understand how to use distinct types of research articles. Interestingly. students lament they lack writing skills. However, this will only be an advantage in some academic papers. One of the options worth mastering is texts based on comparison/contrast, e.g., to describe colors or texture. How do you explain the difference between green and lettuce colors?

Let’s explain this type of research papers with a simple example. You have two monitors in front of you. You can describe all the charms using beautiful epithets. But the reader will not understand: which one is better? Rely on technical characteristics: size, performance, battery, matrix. When discussing visual objects, use images: they often speak better than words.

It’s a principle that applies to scientific research work creation. Excessive emotionality of the author may indicate interest / attempted manipulation. Otherwise, the cold and dry facts create the very contrast and comparison that allow the reader to draw personally appropriate conclusions. If you are pursuing a specific thought, you need to know which comparisons are relevant to your topic.

Cause and Effect Papers

As students learns, they master different types of research texts. Often, teachers request informative and analytical materials at the beginning of the training. However, by the middle of the training, one cannot do without more complex formats of research papers. This type of work assumes a deep immersion in the subject and topic. The author must describe the causes and consequences of the events or phenomena.

The very mechanism of creating a paper differs. The author mainly collects information from the previous varieties, having a key thought. To conclude, you must first understand all the data received. And only after that, it is possible to separate the main idea. At the same time, such a process shows how types of scientific papers are created, claiming to be experts in the future. The most interesting thing is that the original theory and the author’s opinion can change dramatically. This is the value: the student enriches the knowledge and adds important research to the world library.

It is a mistake to assume that reports are dry statistics. You will likely find cautious theories in different types of scientific papers, even if the author is an experienced scientist. In medicine, for example, you don’t rely on the one-time success of a vaccine. You can only talk about the effectiveness of a treatment after years of confirmed positive research.

Reports are especially often used to present data in medicine, biology, and physics. To confirm dogmatic claims, the same experiment is performed thousands of times. Discoveries are often spontaneous and accidental. At the same time, science tries to explain and confirm that even errors are part of the fact.

In these types of research papers, it is especially important to maintain accuracy. Researchers must adhere to citation and ethical rules to ensure the validity and reproducibility of their work. Indeed, effective communication of experimental results promotes scientific knowledge and informed debate in the academic community.

Survey Research Papers

All types of academic paper have a place for data obtained by talking to people. Consequently, qualitative student work involves a combination of methods for better research. Surveys, when used properly, become an important source of obtaining information.

The key aspect is to obtain a relevant sample. For example, if your paper focuses on the difficulties of young mothers, it is unlikely to be wise to reach out to child-free men aged 50+. There are also several other important factors to consider: each respondent’s place of residence, social status, and education. Example topics could range from public opinion on social issues to consumer preferences in marketing. Reporting survey research requires transparency, statistical accuracy, and consideration of potential biases. Effective survey research contributes valuable insights into human behavior and societal trends, offering a quantitative foundation for academic inquiry and decision-making in various fields.

This is one of the types of research reports with which social work students and future political scientists are particularly likely to come into contact. In the process, students learn to see the relationship between behavioral patterns and demographic factors of different categories of people.

Interpretative Paper

An interpretative paper involves a subjective analysis of a given subject matter. Unlike purely factual or objective approaches, this type of paper delves into a topic’s deeper meanings, implications, and nuances. In simple words, it is more of the author’s freedom. The structure typically includes an introduction that outlines the context and significance of the subject, a literature review to provide background and context, a detailed analysis incorporating the writer’s interpretations, and a conclusion summarizing key insights.

Essential components of interpretative papers include a clear thesis statement, a comprehensive examination of relevant literature or sources, and a well-articulated argument supported by evidence. Example topics for interpretative papers might include the analysis of symbolism in literature, the interpretation of cultural phenomena, or examining historical events from a particular perspective. Writing such papers demands critical thinking, creativity, and the ability to present a coherent narrative that reflects the author’s insights and perspectives.

The Main Points When Writing Research Papers

All types of papers in research matters for different academic purposes. To successfully complete your assignment, remember the most important thing: you are a researcher. The best student papers are born out of their sincere interest. Focus not on the beauty or imagery of speech will come later.

Are you studying a discipline and have questions about certain topics? Take that question for research: it will motivate you to learn more information. The more literature and sources you plug in, the more thoughts you will have. This already provides unconventional conclusions, and you might be the one to voice a new perspective on familiar things. Thus, you succeed in academic learning and contribute to the development of science!

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APA (American Psychological Association) style is most commonly used to cite sources within the social sciences. This resource, revised according to the 6 th edition, second printing of the APA manual, offers examples for the general format of APA research papers, in-text citations, endnotes/footnotes, and the reference page. For more information, please consult the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , (6 th ed., 2 nd printing).

Note:  This page reflects APA 6, which is now out of date. It will remain online until 2021, but will not be updated. There is currently no equivalent 7th edition page, but we're working on one. Thank you for your patience. Here is a link to our APA 7 "General Format" page .

There are two common types of papers written in fields using APA Style: the literature review and the experimental report (also known as a "research report"). Each has unique requirements concerning the sections that must be included in the paper.

Literature review

A literature review is a critical summary of what the scientific literature says about your specific topic or question. Often student research in APA fields falls into this category. Your professor might ask you to write this kind of paper to demonstrate your familiarity with work in the field pertinent to the research you hope to conduct. 

While the APA Publication Manual does not require a specific order for a literature review, a good literature review typically contains the following components:

  • Introduction
  • Thesis statement
  • Summary and synthesis of sources
  • List of references

Some instructors may also want you to write an abstract for a literature review, so be sure to check with them when given an assignment. Also, the length of a literature review and the required number of sources will vary based on course and instructor preferences.

NOTE:  A literature review and an annotated bibliography are  not  synonymous. While both types of writing involve examining sources, the literature review seeks to synthesize the information and draw connections between sources. If you are asked to write an annotated bibliography, you should consult the  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association  for the APA Format for Annotated Bibliographies.

Experimental/Research report

In many of the social sciences, you will be asked to design and conduct your own experimental research. If so, you will need to write up your paper using a structure that is more complex than that used for just a literature review. We have a complete resource devoted to writing an experimental report in the field of psychology  here .

This structure follows the scientific method, but it also makes your paper easier to follow by providing those familiar cues that help your reader efficiently scan your information for:

  • Why the topic is important (covered in your introduction)
  • What the problem is (also covered in your introduction)
  • What you did to try to solve the problem (covered in your methods section)
  • What you found (covered in your results section)
  • What you think your findings mean (covered in your discussion section)

Thus an experimental report typically includes the following sections.

  • Multiple experiments (if you conduct more than one)
  • Appendices (if necessary)
  • Tables and/or figures (if necessary)

Make sure to check the guidelines for your assignment or any guidelines that have been given to you by an editor of a journal before you submit a manuscript containing the sections listed above.

As with the literature review, the length of this report may vary by course or by journal, but most often it will be determined by the scope of the research conducted.

Other papers

If you are writing a paper that fits neither of these categories, follow the guidelines about  General Format , consult your instructor, or look up advice in the  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association .

When submitting a manuscript to a journal, make sure you follow the guidelines described in the submission policies of that publication, and include as many sections as you think are applicable to presenting your material. Remember to keep your audience in mind as you are making this decision. If certain information is particularly pertinent for conveying your research, then ensure that there is a section of your paper that adequately addresses that information.

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Types of Research – Tips and Examples

Published by Carmen Troy at August 16th, 2021 , Revised On October 26, 2023

“Research is an investigation conducted to seek knowledge and find solutions to scientific and social problems.”

It includes the collection of information from various sources. New research can contribute to existing knowledge.

The types of research can be categorised from the following perspectives;

  • Application of the study
  • Aim of the research
  • Mode of inquiry
  • Research approach

Types of Research According to the Application Perspective

The different types of research, according to the application perspective, include the following.

Basic Research

Primary research is conducted to increase knowledge. It is also known as theoretical research, pure research, and fundamental research. It provides in-depth knowledge about the scientific and logical explanations and their conclusions.

The results of the primary research are used as the base of applied research. It is based on  experiments  and observation. The results of basic research are published in peer-reviewed journals.

  • What is global warming?
  • How did the Universe begin?
  • What do humans get stress?

Applied Research

Applied research is conducted to find solutions for practical problems. It uses the outcomes of basic research as its base. The results of applied research are applied immediately. It includes case studies, experimental research.

Example: Finding the solution to control air pollution.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research  is carried out to describe current issues, programs, and provides information about the issue through  surveys  and various fact-finding methods.

It includes co-relational and comparative methods of research. It follows the Ex post facto research, which predicts the possible reasons behind the situation that has already occurred.

A researcher cannot control its variables and can report only about the current situation and its occurring.

Example: The widespread contaminated diseases in a specific area of the town. Investigation reveals that there is no trash removal system in that area. A researcher can hypothesise the reason that the improper trash removal system leads to the widespread of contaminated disease.

Analytical Research

In analytical research, a researcher can use the existing data, facts, and knowledge and critically analyses and evaluates the sources and material. It attempts to describe why a specific situation exists.

Example: Impact of video games on teenagers.

Explanatory

Explanatory research is conducted to know why and how two or more variables are interrelated. Researchers usually conduct experiments to know the effect of specific changes among two or more variables.

Example: A study to identify the impact of a nutritious diet on pregnant women.

Exploratory

Exploratory research is conducted to understand the nature of the problem. It does not focus on finding evidence or a conclusion of the problem. It studies the problem to explore the research in-depth and covers such topics which have not been studied before.

Example:  An investigation about the growing crimes against women in India.

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Types of Research According to the Mode of Inquiry

Qualitative research.

Qualitative research  is based on quality, and it looks in-depth at non-numerical data. It enables us to understand the comprehensive details of the problem. The researcher prepares open-ended questions to gather as much information as possible.

  • Stress level among men and women.
  • The obesity rate among teenagers.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is associated with the aspects of measurement, quantity, and extent. It follows the statistical, mathematical, and computational techniques in the form of numerical data such as percentages and statistics. The research is conducted on a large group of population.

  • Find out the weight of students of the fifth standard
  • Studying in government schools.

Types of Research According to the Research Approach

Longitudinal research.

Researchers collect the information at multiple points in time. Usually, a specific group of participants is selected and examined numerous times at various periods.

Example: If a researcher experiments on a group of women to find out the impact of a low carb diet within six months. The women’s weight and a health check-up will be done multiple times to get the evidence of the study.

Cross-Sectional Research

Cross-sectional research  gathers and compares the information from various groups of the population at the same point. It may not provide the exact reason and relationship between the subjects but gives a broad picture to study multiple groups at the same time.

Example: If a researcher wants to know the number of students studying in a school, he will get to know about the age groups, height, weight, and gender of the students at the same time.

Conceptual Research

It is associated with the concept and theory that describes the hypothesis being studied. It is based on  the inductive  approach of reasoning. It does not follow practical experiments. Philosophers, thinkers, logicians, and theorists use such research to discover new concepts and understand the existing knowledge.

Example: discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton and Einstein.

Empirical Research

It is also known as experimental research, which depends on observation and experience. It is based on the  deductive  approach of reasoning . A researcher focuses on gathering information about the facts, their sources and investigating the existing knowledge. Example: Is intermittent fasting the healthy weight loss option for women?

The researcher can come up with the result that a certain number of women lost their weight, and it improved their health. On the other hand, a certain number of women suffering from low blood pressure and diabetes didn’t lose weight, and they faced negative impacts of intermittent fasting on their health.

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Mixed Methods of Research

When you combine quantitative and qualitative methods of research, the resulting approach becomes mixed methods of research.

Over the last few decades, much of the research in the world of academia has been conducted using mixed methods. Due to its greater legitimacy, this particular technique has gained for several reasons, including the feeling that combining the two types of research can provide holistic and more dependable results.

Here is what mixed methods of research involve:

  • Interpreting and investigating the information gathered through quantitative and qualitative techniques.
  • There could be more than one stage of research. Depending on the topic of research, occasionally, it would be more appropriate to perform qualitative research in the first stage to figure out and investigate a problem to unveil key themes; and conduct quantitative research in stage two of the process for measuring relationships between the themes.

 Tips for Choosing the Right Type of Research

Choosing the right type of research is essential for producing relevant and actionable insights. The choice depends on your objectives, available resources, and the nature of the problem. Here are some tips to help you make the right decision:

Define your Research Objectives Clearly

  • Descriptive Research: To describe the characteristics of certain phenomena.
  • Exploratory Research: To explore a problem that hasn’t been studied in depth.
  • Explanatory (or Causal) Research: To explain patterns of cause and effect.
  • Predictive Research: To forecast future outcomes based on patterns.

Understand the Research Methods

  • Quantitative Research: Employs structured data collection (e.g., surveys) to generate statistical data.
  • Qualitative Research: Uses unstructured or semi-structured data collection methods (e.g., interviews, observations) to understand behaviour, motivations, etc.

Consider the Time Dimension

  • Cross-sectional Studies: Capture data at a single point in time.
  • Longitudinal Studies: Collect data over extended periods to observe changes.

Evaluate Available Resources

  • Budget: Some research methods, like experimental research, may require more funding.
  • Time: Exploratory or ethnographic studies may take longer than surveys.
  • Expertise: Ensure you or your team possess the skills needed for your chosen research method.

Consider the Nature of the Problem

Complex problems may require mixed-methods research (a combination of qualitative and quantitative).

Review Existing Literature

Review existing literature before settling on a type to see what methodologies were previously employed for similar questions.

Think about Data Collection

Consider the best method to gather data: surveys, interviews, experiments, observations, etc. Your choice affects the research type.

Ethical Considerations:

Ensure your chosen method abides by ethical standards, especially when human subjects are involved.

Generalisability Vs. Depth

Quantitative methods often allow for generalizability, while qualitative methods provide depth and detail.

Pilot Testing

If unsure, run a pilot study to test your chosen method’s feasibility and utility.

Stay Open to Adaptation

Sometimes, initial research can lead to unforeseen insights or complexities. Be prepared to adjust your approach if needed.

Seek Feedback

Discuss your research approach with colleagues, mentors, or experts in the field. They might offer valuable insights or identify potential pitfalls.

Stay Updated

Research methods evolve. Stay updated with the latest techniques, tools, and best practices in your field.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is research.

Research is a systematic inquiry aimed at discovering, interpreting, and revising knowledge about specific phenomena. It involves formulating hypotheses, collecting data, and analysing results to generate new insights or validate existing theories. Conducted in various fields, research can be empirical, theoretical, or experimental and is fundamental for informed decision-making.

What are the different Types of Research?

Different types of research include:

  • Descriptive: Describe and analyze phenomena.
  • Experimental: Manipulate variables to establish causation.
  • Correlational: Examine relationships between variables.
  • Qualitative: Gather insights and understanding.
  • Quantitative: Use numerical data for analysis.
  • Case study, survey, ethnography, and more.

What is research design?

Research design is a structured blueprint for conducting a study, outlining how data will be collected, analysed, and interpreted. It determines the overall strategy and approach to obtain valid, accurate, and reliable results. Research design encompasses choices about type (e.g., experimental, observational), method (qualitative, quantitative), and data collection procedures.

What is survey?

A survey is a research method used to gather data from a predefined group by asking specific questions. Surveys can be conducted using various mediums, such as face-to-face interviews, phone calls, or online questionnaires. They are valuable for collecting descriptive, quantitative, or qualitative information and gauging public opinion or behaviours.

What is research method?

A research method is a systematic approach used by researchers to gather, analyse, and interpret data relevant to their study. It dictates how information is collected and evaluated to answer specific research questions. Methods can be qualitative, quantitative, or mixed and include techniques like surveys, experiments, case studies, and interviews.

What is exploratory research?

Exploratory research is an initial study designed to clarify and define the nature of a problem. It’s used when researchers have a limited understanding of the topic. Instead of seeking definitive answers, it aims to identify patterns, ideas, or hypotheses. Methods often include literature reviews, qualitative interviews, and observational studies.

What is the purpose of research?

The purpose of research is to discover, interpret, or revise knowledge on specific topics or phenomena. It seeks to answer questions, validate theories, or find solutions to problems. Research enhances understanding, informs decision-making, guides policies, drives innovation, and contributes to academic, scientific, and societal advancement. It’s fundamental for evidence-based practices.

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Ethnography is a type of research where a researcher observes the people in their natural environment. Here is all you need to know about ethnography.

Sampling methods are used to to draw valid conclusions about a large community, organization or group of people, but they are based on evidence and reasoning.

A variable is a characteristic that can change and have more than one value, such as age, height, and weight. But what are the different types of variables?

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Types of Research Papers

Jason Burrey

Table of Contents

Writing a research paper requires a special approach, depending on its type. Students associate completing this type of academic assignment with spending long hours on difficult writing. But writing academic work can be less challenging if you know how to distinguish different paper types. You will better understand what aspect to emphasize and how to present the information the right way. The paper type determines the tone of your work.

Let’s find what popular research work types and their main features to make your academic writing journey captivating and flawless are.

different types of research papers

What Is a Research Paper?

Before moving to paper-type details, let’s find out what research work is and how it differs from other written assignments. A research article is a form of academic writing providing analysis, evaluation, or interpretation of a topic based on empirical evidence. Research papers use statistical data and a strict code for citations. The structure of a research paper depends on assignment requirements. However, generally, it consists of:

  • Introduction
  • Literature review
  • Recommendations
  • Limitations
  • Acknowledgements
  • Figures and Tables

The language of your article should be formal, objective, hedged, and responsible. Plan and organize your writing carefully and precisely. It is required to use complex sentence structures and impersonal pronouns. When writing your research work, avoid wordiness, a vague thesis statement, informal language, description without analysis, and not citing sources. Use one style manual (MLA, APA, or Chicago) to cite them consistently.

Features of research articles are clear focus established by the thesis statement, straightforward structure, statements supported by evidence, and impersonal tone. The length of a research paper ranges from 4,000 to 6,000 words. However, depending on the assignment, your work can be 2,000 words or even 10,000 words. Your academic level and the assignment complexity influence the essay length.

Simple Steps for Writing Different Types of Research Papers

There are nine simple steps you should follow if you wonder: “how can I write my research paper ?”

  • Carefully read the assignment guidelines.
  • Select an engaging article topic.
  • Do early research.
  • Create a powerful thesis statement.
  • Find reliable sources.
  • Write a paper outline.
  • Create an essay draft.
  • Follow citation and formatting rules.
  • Thoroughly edit and proofread your work.

When you need research paper help for some reason, you can find a lot of professional writing services and buy research work.

Different Types of Research Article

There are seven main research work types. Explore them to know what approach to take to create a high-quality paper in the future. Here you can find each type’s specifics and differences to prepare for your assignment the best way. If you have some issues with task completion, choose a reliable service and buy a research paper.

#1 Argumentative Research Papers

Creating an argumentative paper requires a writer to present arguments related to the topic from different points of view. They should analyze the two sides and propose their pros and cons. After that, an author should choose one viewpoint and prove its correctness using evidence from primary sources. There is a special argumentative paper structure that is aimed at persuading the reader to support the writer’s opinion. Thus, describe the problem from two different viewpoints, suggest their pros and cons, and give preference to one.

#2 Analytical Research Papers

It may seem challenging to write an analytical work, but once you find its features, structure, and guidelines, there’s nothing to worry about. A writer should analyze in their paper ideas, facts, events, or issues. It requires an objective analysis and critical thinking to provide strong arguments. You should not take any viewpoint and neutrally describe every point supporting them with relevant information. The analytical paper is based on describing multiple points of view, analyzing all points, and drawing a general conclusion.

#3 Cause and Effect Research Papers

These papers are created to find what is the cause of the expected result. Students without much writing experience are generally assigned to complete such research works. In their papers, they have to describe a situation, present effects, and causes, and draw a conclusion. But this paper type is not as simple as it seems at first sight. Depending on your academic level and subject, a professor may ask you to determine the possible result if conditions change.

#4 Problem-Solution Research Papers

Dealing with this paper type, a writer should describe the problem, present their solution to it, and prove why it is correct. Your task is to find a relevant issue that will be interesting to solve and to engage the readers to explore your solution. Provide reliable data to support your opinion. Consider adding some examples, statistics, and data.

#5 Experimental Research Papers

If you study biology, physics, chemistry, or sociology, this paper type is right for you. When creating an experimental work, a writer should describe their experimental process. This paper provides useful experience and relevant data. Conclude the paper proving that your experiment makes a great contribution to the field.

#6 Report Research Papers

A report paper provides a logical and detailed summary of a case study. A researcher outlines what has been done for the research. The paper includes information, data characteristics, and necessary facts to summarize the findings.

#7 An Interpretive Essay

Such essays are assigned to social science and literature students to show their theoretical knowledge of the subject. Interpret someone’s piece of writing and identify their methods. It is required to support the thesis statement and findings with relevant data.

Types of a Research Article

Research articles are often associated with research articles, and there is no difference between them. Some scholars suggest that works are longer and more detailed. So let’s see what six types of research articles are:

  • The original research article is a manuscript for a journal.
  • A review article is a comprehensive research summary consisting of a systematic review, literature review, and meta-analysis.
  • Short communications are a type of research article that provides a summary of research data.
  • A book chapter is a separate section of a book.
  • The book review is a brief report of a book consisting of an introduction, author profile, book format, and content.
  • Conference materials are article types that can be presented as conference abstracts, posters, and presentation extracts.

Research Paper Styles

If you need research work help, check out the main research article styles. Educational institutions worldwide require their students to adhere to one of the following paper formats or styles:

American Medical Association (AMA) Style

AMA style is commonly used in medical publications. It has a special citation format with in-text references cited numerically in consecutive order using Arabic numerals. Double-space and 12-point font are preferable.

Associated Press Style

The AP style is used mainly for writing news. It’s characterized by consistency, logic, and brevity. Writers avoid offensive and stereotypical language in their works. This style is essential for print journalism.

Chicago Manual of Style

Chicago format style is used in history, physical, natural, and social sciences by many writers and scientists. It is crucial to know about this style that the note numbers are placed within the text, and the sources are found at the end of the chapter.

American Psychological Association (APA) Style

This format is one of the most widely used in academic writing. Students benefit from the APA style frequently in the social sciences. It is also easy to read due to its 12-point font. There are many features of this style, but you should remember that it differs by a left-aligned running header with the title of your study on each page.

Modern Language Association (MLA) Style

MLA style is one of two of the most popular article formats. It is widely used for writing papers on humanities, literature, and English. This style is simple and easy; just use double-spaced throughout the paper and a 12-point font.

Can Research Papers Have Opinions?

Giving your opinion on the issue presupposes subjective evaluation, and in the article, we found that a research paper should be written in an impersonal, objective tone. That’s a controversial question, and we’ll try to handle it.

You can include opinions of prominent scholars in the field and give citations and references to their works. An author should show in their work that they have a personal view on the question and can substantiate it by research and literature. Persuade readers in your paper that your opinion is worth considering using arguments.

Besides, there is an opinion research paper type that aims at presenting the writer’s opinion on a specific topic. Here you are welcome to express your viewpoint but support it with reliable sources and documents.

Writing a research paper seems an insurmountable task with many aspects to consider. Determine your paper type, and your writing process will be much easier as you will have special guidelines.

Contact a research paper writer if you require academic assistance.

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The 7 Types of Academic Papers and Journal Articles

EditrixJD

In the vast universe of journal articles, writers are tasked with creating many different kinds of papers, all with specific purposes and audiences in mind. If you're just stepping into this fascinating world, take a minute or two to familiarize yourself with the types of papers you might need to write – understanding all of these different types can turbocharge your writing journey. While academic papers could fit into an endless list of categories, it's helpful to get started with a few common types you're likely to encounter (and write!) in the academic community.

1. Original research

You know a text is original research if the report is written by the researchers who ran the study. Written by experts for other experts, original research articles usually undergo the peer review process before submission to an academic journal.

In an original article, the authors outline their research by first presenting their hypothesis and research questions . Here they describe the purpose of their study. They detail the research methods they applied, lay out the results of their research, and present the results. Original research also includes implications and interpretations of the study to give other experts in the field new information on all of the subjects. What's really interesting about original research is that, upon reading a study, future researchers will generate ideas to build on articles with their own original research and keep the advancement of knowledge acquisition going. The possibilities are endless!

Within the category of original research, you will encounter some specific kinds of research articles. Some studies can include elements of more than one type:

  • Exploratory research Exploratory studies involve a kind of thought experiment and don't often include actual testing of a theory. Without the funding (and the time, technology, and commitment) to actually travel to other planets, a physicist might propose a new method to find other planets that could support life beyond Earth.
  • Constructive research A person undergoing constructive research builds something that will lead to new information and knowledge and solve a real-life problem. If a computer scientist creates a new algorithm and tests it out to see what it can show us, they are demonstrating constructive research.
  • Controlled experiments This type of research is usually conducted in a lab under controlled conditions. The benefit of isolating one aspect of a study is that it provides a clear result of an experiment without the need to discount your findings in the presence of other factors that could skew the outcome. For example, a medical researcher might use this type of study to determine how a virus responds to an antiviral drug in development.
  • Field research An experiment in which some, but not all, aspects can be controlled is an example of field research. For example, a study on the effects of a pesticide on outdoor flowering plants involves a few outside forces that researchers might not be able to successfully manage. A researcher could compare the plants exposed to the pesticide with a plant without pesticide exposure, but they would have little control over the seed quality, sun exposure, rain amounts, or other natural factors.
  • Natural study Under a natural experiment, a researcher takes a purely observational role and has little to no control over the factors involved. For example, a natural experiment could measure the effects of a free lunch program piloted in multiple schools over a period of time.
  • Cohort study A cohort study offers an observational study design in which researchers follow a group of individuals over time and observe common characteristics or exposure to a specific element. The researchers then examine within that cohort of people the outcomes related to a particular factor, compared to people in a similar group without that factor. For example, a study might examine the long-term health effects of smoking and identify a group of individuals who smoke. The study would look at the development of lung cancer or other diseases within that group of smokers and compare the prevalence of disease compared to a group of non-smokers.

2. Retrospective study

A retrospective study looks back through time to observe the relationship between a characteristic or level of exposure and a health outcome that arises in individuals. This type of study uses existing records and data sources for its observations. An example of a retroactive study is one that examines the connection between the use of a medication and the prevalence of a specific side effect.

3. Case study

A research case study involves an in-depth investigation of a particular individual, group, or situation with a goal to understand the effect of complex factors. A researcher performing a case study collects a variety of data on a case, including interviews, observations, and documents, and analyzes them to identify patterns, themes, and insights that can help to understand the case in greater depth.

Research case studies are often used in fields such as psychology, sociology, and education to explore complex human behaviors and experiences. Researchers in various fields can apply this type of study to investigate the effects of a particular intervention on a specific individua or group or the factors that contribute to successful outcomes in a particular setting. For example, a case study could examine a successful company known for its innovative management practices. The researcher could conduct interviews with employees and managers, review company documents and reports, and observe the company's operations to uncover the factors that contribute to its success.

Research case studies provide a rich and detailed understanding of a particular situation, which supplies the researcher with powerful tools and insights for future research.

4. Methodology study

A methodology study focuses on evaluating and improving research methods and techniques for application to a research question or field of study. This type of study can examine the validity and reliability of a particular research instrument, such as a survey or questionnaire. In such an analysis, researchers can collect data from a sample of participants using a specific research instrument and then examine the data to assess the validity and reliability of the instrument. They could also compare the results obtained with the instrument to the results obtained using other research methods.

Methodology studies advance the research field by developing more effective methodologies and improving the quality of research conducted.

5. Opinion article

An opinion article expresses the author's personal viewpoint on a topic. Unlike a research article, an opinion article is not based on objective reporting or research but offers the author's subjective analysis without the need for evidence or peer review. Opinion articles can be found in newspapers, magazines, and online publications, often written by journalists or experts in a field who want to share their views.

An example of an opinion article is an op-ed piece in a newspaper or online publication. Op-eds are typically published on the editorial page of a newspaper or magazine and are written by individuals who are not affiliated with the publication. An op-ed article might argue in favor of or against a particular policy, offer a personal reflection on a current event, or provide commentary on a controversial issue. The author would use persuasive language and evidence to support the argument and try to convince readers to adopt the same viewpoint.

Opinion articles provide individuals with a way to share their ideas with a broader audience and to contribute to public debate and discourse.

6. Review article

A review article summarizes and synthesizes existing research. The goal is to provide a comprehensive overview and identify gaps in the current knowledge to see what further research should be done. Review articles are typically published in academic journals by researchers or experts in a field. They can take the form of narrative reviews, systematic reviews, or meta-analyses.

An example of a review article is a narrative review of the literature on the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for the treatment of anxiety disorders. The author might summarize and analyze randomized controlled trials and observational studies on the use of CBT, providing an overall assessment of the effectiveness of CBT for anxiety disorders and pointing out any yet unanswered questions about its application.

7. Short report

A short report presents the findings of a particular study or investigation. Named for its brevity, it is typically shorter in length than a full research paper or report and is intended to serve as a summary of the study's main findings.

Short reports include an introduction that provides background information on the study, a summary of the research methodology, a presentation of the key findings, and a conclusion that summarizes the main implications of the study. Short reports help researchers communicate their findings in a clear and concise manner and provide a summary of key information for different audiences.

If you're dipping your toes into academic writing or scholarly publishing, you'll find a world of different paper types, each with its own style, aim, and intended readers. It might seem like a lot to take in at first, but understanding these formats can seriously boost your ability to share your research and ideas. Plus, knowing the ins and outs of these various types means you can sift through published works more effectively, picking out the best sources for your own work. At the end of the day, this rich variety of academic papers and journal articles is what keeps the conversation lively in the scientific community, helping us all to keep learning and growing.

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  • A Research Guide
  • Research Paper Guide

Different Types of Research Papers

  • According to the purpose
  • According to the depth of scope
  • According to the data type
  • According to variables manipulation
  • According to the type of inference
  • According to the time in which it is carried out
  • According to the sources of information
  • According to how the data is obtained
  • According to design
  • Other research paper types

Types of Research Papers

Types of research papers

As a way to make your journey through the research-type paper options a bit easier, let’s divide them by types of work.

According to the purpose:

  • Theoretical. Theoretical research type is one of the most popular types of research paper as it has a clear focus. If you have to work with this type, your main objective is to generate all currently available. Even if it has no practical appliance (like in Engineering or design), you must use it anyway. You must collect data and make sure that your target audience understands what your research is about and what theory it follows. Most of such research papers will relate to theories and basic analytical work.
  • Applied. This research type stands for something that can be approached scientifically based on practice. The aim here is to generate practical skills. It’s essential in Engineering, Healthcare, and Biology. For such types of papers, one can alternate between technological or scientific types of research, depending on your aims. A technological approach will be fitting if you wish to improve some processes. Now, the scientific research type would include prediction as you work with variables and design things.

According to the depth of scope:

  • Exploratory. It is most suitable for research type papers where you have to explore a not-well-known subject. Start with making a hypothesis and developing research. It can be an investigation talking about the role of video games in the development of teenagers.
  • Descriptive. This type of research is where you must describe certain characteristics or discuss specifics of some belief or an event. You may not have to research why something has caused these characteristic traits. You must describe and talk about how some things may change IF this or that takes place.
  • Explanatory. It’s one of the popular research methods since one has to analyze specific methodologies and help the target audience trace the cause-and-effect relations. It is close to descriptive writing by nature. Still, you must create a research environment since your findings may have to be re-created by others.
  • Correlational. This is where you identify the link between two or more variables. You must focus on determining whether certain research variables will be affected and see whether something is systematic regarding these changes (correlational research methodology).

According to the data type:

  • Qualitative . It’s used to collect, evaluate, and explain information based on obtained information. It means you have to approach a linguistic-semiotic method to things as you research. You can turn to analysis, interviews, questionnaires, and personal surveys. This is where statistical data helps! You must ask yourself “why” instead of “how.”
  • Quantitative. Such types of papers to write belong to one of the most challenging cases because quantitative stands for mathematical (think MATLAB) and computer-based software to check things. It also makes it possible to create a prognosis, which is why this type of research is usually met in engineering.
  • Mixed. It’s also possible to use both methodologies if you can support your research type assignment with source information and personal examples. If you are dealing with Psychology or Experimental study, use surveys and aid yourself with AI-based evaluation tools.

According to variables manipulation:

  • Experimental. Contrary to its title, you do not have to experiment per se. It’s about the design or replication of things you research. It means you have to re-create specific research conditions to discover what effects are caused by given variables. It’s where you primarily use case studies and sample groups.
  • Non-experimental. They often call this research type an observational study. It means that you have to provide analysis in its natural environment. You do not have to intervene in the process but consider turning to descriptive writing. This research may include observation of animals in their natural habitat or the use of the noise effect in the urban environment.
  • Quasi-experimental. These types of academic papers are not purely experimental, as you only work with two or three variables. Another aspect of this research is based on randomly chosen variables. It helps to decrease the bias in your study. It also helps to focus on relevant data and allows us to narrow things down.

According to the type of inference:

  • Deductive. It means the research is basically fixed since one has to focus on laws and things that can or cannot be. It helps to come to certain conclusions. As you look at the research problem, you use deduction to create your considerations. If you make assumptions and develop reliable evidence, this work method suits you.
  • Inductive. It’s one of the flexible methods to think about. The reason why it’s flexible is the way inductive research is generated. You conclude by observing and generalizing while different kinds of research occur. You have to collect data over a period, which makes the process less fixed.
  • Hypothetical-deductive approach. You have to make a hypothesis for your research work and use deduction methods to come up with a conclusion. The major difference is that a researcher also takes time to evaluate whether things are correct.

According to the time in which it is carried out:

  • Longitudinal. You might know this type of work as diachronic research. Despite the complex name, it focuses on the same issue or an event where a fixed period is taken. It has to track certain changes based on variables. It’s one of the most popular research papers in Healthcare, Nursing, Sociology, Psychology, and Education.
  • Cross-sectional. Also known as synchronous research, it is the type of work that approaches cross-sectional design. Here, you have to look at some event or a process at a certain point by taking notes. Thus, research can be used both for sample groups or when working with a case study.

According to the sources of information:

  • Primary. Most students are asked to use primary sources. It is exactly why we have a primary research paper method. The data must be collected directly (personal interviews, surveys, questionnaires, a field observation study, etc.) and represent first-hand information. It is perfect for papers in Psychology, Journalism, Healthcare, and subjects where accuracy is vital.
  • Secondary. This research type of work is mainly developed with sources that represent secondary references. These include books in print or found online, scientific journals, peer-reviewed documents, etc. If another expert or a student reviews a study, it is related to secondary research; so will your project.

According to how the data is obtained:

  • Documentary. As the name suggests, documentary research is based on the secondary references you used. It is a systematic review where you turn to secondary sources related to your subject of study. The most prominent types of research projects in this area are writing a literature review or working with a case study. It is one of the most accessible and clear types of research work.
  • Field. It is quite popular research these days as students tend to collect information in the field or at the location where something takes place. Think about researching Fashion Studies where you attend the shows or exploring Environmental Science, where you must observe a phenomenon and take notes.
  • Laboratory. The major difference in laboratory research type is working in a strictly-controlled environment where study notes are taken immediately. You must isolate unnecessary variables and use one or two scientific methods. Therefore, such type of research writing is called laboratory research. If your college professor asks for this assignment, consider keeping up with standards and rules.
  • Survey. This is where you have to work with the primary information or the use of first-hand data you obtain yourself. It is especially helpful when you work with a group to obtain variables. With this research type, you can also come up with certain conclusions to support your hypothesis and thesis statement.

According to design:

  • Fixed. When conducting a fixed research type, narrow things down and focus on temporal aspects. It means you have to discuss how often you will evaluate something, where your research will occur, a sample group, and other fixed variables. Working on fixed types of research reports, creating precise conditions, and follow strict protocols. Such research is related chiefly to lab reports or laboratory works mostly used in Healthcare and/or Law.
  • Flexible. Now, the flexible research type will provide you with a process where certain things will change as you take step after step in your research. The examples may include case studies where you have to observe the changes that may take over time. Another example would relate to Anthropology or Geography, where you have to observe a group of people or deal with a cross-cultural analysis. It can also relate to grounded-theory studies, where you should develop theoretical knowledge based on analysis and your thinking.

Other research paper types:

  • Argumentative. Also known as a persuasive research type paper, you have to persuade your target audience on your side and a point of view. You have to use at least one piece of evidence (references) to prove your point and support your argument. You must talk about different research opinions and show why your side is correct.
  • Analytical. Analytical research papers should always pose a problem and collect relevant information. You can look at another researcher’s works and provide an analysis based on various points of view. The main types of research papers include analysis and must keep the tone analytical and remain neutral without showing your thoughts unless only to guide the reader.
  • Definition. This research type requires describing the facts or arguments without using anything based on your opinion or an emotional constituent. You only have to offer information by including facts, yet let your data remain without analysis or bias.
  • Action-based. This research type assignment must conduct your work based on a process or a certain action causing things. It can also lead to social processes where a person’s actions have led to something. It can be some research about social movements and/or manufacturing processes.
  • Causal. It may relate to cause-and-effect papers where you must focus on the causes. This research type has to address the questions and explore the causes. It can be based on case studies related to business, education, environmental, educational issues, and more.
  • Classification. If you have to classify, compare, and contrast things, this method will be helpful. Start with the standards and the rules by setting your classification type immediately. Once you know it, your research paper will go smoothly.
  • Comparative. As a rule, this research will deal with comparative work where you take a methodology and compare two sample groups, two individuals, different beliefs, or situations. If you have to compare, discuss your objectives and then create two columns to determine differences and similarities.

What research paper type is most suitable for me?

It will always depend on the research paper objectives you wish to achieve. If you need clarification on the research type you must approach, consult your academic advisor or look closely at your grading rubric. If it says that you must develop an analytical study, it will require posing a specific research question or a problem. The next step would be to collect information on a topic and provide an analysis based on various points of view.

Likewise, if your grading rubric has the word “definition” mentioned, your research type paper must focus on the facts or argumentation. In this case, you should not provide your opinion or talk about what some author thinks. Only the definition of an object or belief is necessary.

As you can see, you only have to find out what your research must achieve. Set the purpose and look at the different types of research and possible methods to approach your problem . Once you know it, look at the research type papers and choose the most fitting option!

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InformedHealth.org [Internet]. Cologne, Germany: Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG); 2006-.

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InformedHealth.org [Internet].

What types of studies are there.

Created: June 15, 2016 ; Last Update: September 8, 2016 ; Next update: 2020.

There are various types of scientific studies such as experiments and comparative analyses, observational studies, surveys, or interviews. The choice of study type will mainly depend on the research question being asked.

When making decisions, patients and doctors need reliable answers to a number of questions. Depending on the medical condition and patient's personal situation, the following questions may be asked:

  • What is the cause of the condition?
  • What is the natural course of the disease if left untreated?
  • What will change because of the treatment?
  • How many other people have the same condition?
  • How do other people cope with it?

Each of these questions can best be answered by a different type of study.

In order to get reliable results, a study has to be carefully planned right from the start. One thing that is especially important to consider is which type of study is best suited to the research question. A study protocol should be written and complete documentation of the study's process should also be done. This is vital in order for other scientists to be able to reproduce and check the results afterwards.

The main types of studies are randomized controlled trials (RCTs), cohort studies, case-control studies and qualitative studies.

  • Randomized controlled trials

If you want to know how effective a treatment or diagnostic test is, randomized trials provide the most reliable answers. Because the effect of the treatment is often compared with "no treatment" (or a different treatment), they can also show what happens if you opt to not have the treatment or diagnostic test.

When planning this type of study, a research question is stipulated first. This involves deciding what exactly should be tested and in what group of people. In order to be able to reliably assess how effective the treatment is, the following things also need to be determined before the study is started:

  • How long the study should last
  • How many participants are needed
  • How the effect of the treatment should be measured

For instance, a medication used to treat menopause symptoms needs to be tested on a different group of people than a flu medicine. And a study on treatment for a stuffy nose may be much shorter than a study on a drug taken to prevent strokes.

“Randomized” means divided into groups by chance. In RCTs participants are randomly assigned to one of two or more groups. Then one group receives the new drug A, for example, while the other group receives the conventional drug B or a placebo (dummy drug). Things like the appearance and taste of the drug and the placebo should be as similar as possible. Ideally, the assignment to the various groups is done "double blinded," meaning that neither the participants nor their doctors know who is in which group.

The assignment to groups has to be random in order to make sure that only the effects of the medications are compared, and no other factors influence the results. If doctors decided themselves which patients should receive which treatment, they might – for instance – give the more promising drug to patients who have better chances of recovery. This would distort the results. Random allocation ensures that differences between the results of the two groups at the end of the study are actually due to the treatment and not something else.

Randomized controlled trials provide the best results when trying to find out if there is a cause-and-effect relationship. RCTs can answer questions such as these:

  • Is the new drug A better than the standard treatment for medical condition X?
  • Does regular physical activity speed up recovery after a slipped disk when compared to passive waiting?
  • Cohort studies

A cohort is a group of people who are observed frequently over a period of many years – for instance, to determine how often a certain disease occurs. In a cohort study, two (or more) groups that are exposed to different things are compared with each other: For example, one group might smoke while the other doesn't. Or one group may be exposed to a hazardous substance at work, while the comparison group isn't. The researchers then observe how the health of the people in both groups develops over the course of several years, whether they become ill, and how many of them pass away. Cohort studies often include people who are healthy at the start of the study. Cohort studies can have a prospective (forward-looking) design or a retrospective (backward-looking) design. In a prospective study, the result that the researchers are interested in (such as a specific illness) has not yet occurred by the time the study starts. But the outcomes that they want to measure and other possible influential factors can be precisely defined beforehand. In a retrospective study, the result (the illness) has already occurred before the study starts, and the researchers look at the patient's history to find risk factors.

Cohort studies are especially useful if you want to find out how common a medical condition is and which factors increase the risk of developing it. They can answer questions such as:

  • How does high blood pressure affect heart health?
  • Does smoking increase your risk of lung cancer?

For example, one famous long-term cohort study observed a group of 40,000 British doctors, many of whom smoked. It tracked how many doctors died over the years, and what they died of. The study showed that smoking caused a lot of deaths, and that people who smoked more were more likely to get ill and die.

  • Case-control studies

Case-control studies compare people who have a certain medical condition with people who do not have the medical condition, but who are otherwise as similar as possible, for example in terms of their sex and age. Then the two groups are interviewed, or their medical files are analyzed, to find anything that might be risk factors for the disease. So case-control studies are generally retrospective.

Case-control studies are one way to gain knowledge about rare diseases. They are also not as expensive or time-consuming as RCTs or cohort studies. But it is often difficult to tell which people are the most similar to each other and should therefore be compared with each other. Because the researchers usually ask about past events, they are dependent on the participants’ memories. But the people they interview might no longer remember whether they were, for instance, exposed to certain risk factors in the past.

Still, case-control studies can help to investigate the causes of a specific disease, and answer questions like these:

  • Do HPV infections increase the risk of cervical cancer?
  • Is the risk of sudden infant death syndrome (“cot death”) increased by parents smoking at home?

Cohort studies and case-control studies are types of "observational studies."

  • Cross-sectional studies

Many people will be familiar with this kind of study. The classic type of cross-sectional study is the survey: A representative group of people – usually a random sample – are interviewed or examined in order to find out their opinions or facts. Because this data is collected only once, cross-sectional studies are relatively quick and inexpensive. They can provide information on things like the prevalence of a particular disease (how common it is). But they can't tell us anything about the cause of a disease or what the best treatment might be.

Cross-sectional studies can answer questions such as these:

  • How tall are German men and women at age 20?
  • How many people have cancer screening?
  • Qualitative studies

This type of study helps us understand, for instance, what it is like for people to live with a certain disease. Unlike other kinds of research, qualitative research does not rely on numbers and data. Instead, it is based on information collected by talking to people who have a particular medical condition and people close to them. Written documents and observations are used too. The information that is obtained is then analyzed and interpreted using a number of methods.

Qualitative studies can answer questions such as these:

  • How do women experience a Cesarean section?
  • What aspects of treatment are especially important to men who have prostate cancer?
  • How reliable are the different types of studies?

Each type of study has its advantages and disadvantages. It is always important to find out the following: Did the researchers select a study type that will actually allow them to find the answers they are looking for? You can’t use a survey to find out what is causing a particular disease, for instance.

It is really only possible to draw reliable conclusions about cause and effect by using randomized controlled trials. Other types of studies usually only allow us to establish correlations (relationships where it isn’t clear whether one thing is causing the other). For instance, data from a cohort study may show that people who eat more red meat develop bowel cancer more often than people who don't. This might suggest that eating red meat can increase your risk of getting bowel cancer. But people who eat a lot of red meat might also smoke more, drink more alcohol, or tend to be overweight. The influence of these and other possible risk factors can only be determined by comparing two equal-sized groups made up of randomly assigned participants.

That is why randomized controlled trials are usually the only suitable way to find out how effective a treatment is. Systematic reviews, which summarize multiple RCTs, are even better. In order to be good-quality, though, all studies and systematic reviews need to be designed properly and eliminate as many potential sources of error as possible.

  • German Network for Evidence-based Medicine. Glossar: Qualitative Forschung.  Berlin: DNEbM; 2011. 
  • Greenhalgh T. Einführung in die Evidence-based Medicine: kritische Beurteilung klinischer Studien als Basis einer rationalen Medizin. Bern: Huber; 2003. 
  • Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG, Germany). General methods . Version 5.0. Cologne: IQWiG; 2017.
  • Klug SJ, Bender R, Blettner M, Lange S. Wichtige epidemiologische Studientypen. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 2007; 132:e45-e47. [ PubMed : 17530597 ]
  • Schäfer T. Kritische Bewertung von Studien zur Ätiologie. In: Kunz R, Ollenschläger G, Raspe H, Jonitz G, Donner-Banzhoff N (eds.). Lehrbuch evidenzbasierte Medizin in Klinik und Praxis. Cologne: Deutscher Ärzte-Verlag; 2007.

IQWiG health information is written with the aim of helping people understand the advantages and disadvantages of the main treatment options and health care services.

Because IQWiG is a German institute, some of the information provided here is specific to the German health care system. The suitability of any of the described options in an individual case can be determined by talking to a doctor. We do not offer individual consultations.

Our information is based on the results of good-quality studies. It is written by a team of health care professionals, scientists and editors, and reviewed by external experts. You can find a detailed description of how our health information is produced and updated in our methods.

  • Cite this Page InformedHealth.org [Internet]. Cologne, Germany: Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG); 2006-. What types of studies are there? 2016 Jun 15 [Updated 2016 Sep 8].

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What’s Included: Research Paper Template

If you’re preparing to write an academic research paper, our free research paper template is the perfect starting point. In the template, we cover every section step by step, with clear, straightforward explanations and examples .

The template’s structure is based on the tried and trusted best-practice format for formal academic research papers. The template structure reflects the overall research process, ensuring your paper will have a smooth, logical flow from chapter to chapter.

The research paper template covers the following core sections:

  • The title page/cover page
  • Abstract (sometimes also called the executive summary)
  • Section 1: Introduction 
  • Section 2: Literature review 
  • Section 3: Methodology
  • Section 4: Findings /results
  • Section 5: Discussion
  • Section 6: Conclusion
  • Reference list

Each section is explained in plain, straightforward language , followed by an overview of the key elements that you need to cover within each section. We’ve also included links to free resources to help you understand how to write each section.

The cleanly formatted Google Doc can be downloaded as a fully editable MS Word Document (DOCX format), so you can use it as-is or convert it to LaTeX.

FAQs: Research Paper Template

What format is the template (doc, pdf, ppt, etc.).

The research paper template is provided as a Google Doc. You can download it in MS Word format or make a copy to your Google Drive. You’re also welcome to convert it to whatever format works best for you, such as LaTeX or PDF.

What types of research papers can this template be used for?

The template follows the standard best-practice structure for formal academic research papers, so it is suitable for the vast majority of degrees, particularly those within the sciences.

Some universities may have some additional requirements, but these are typically minor, with the core structure remaining the same. Therefore, it’s always a good idea to double-check your university’s requirements before you finalise your structure.

Is this template for an undergrad, Masters or PhD-level research paper?

This template can be used for a research paper at any level of study. It may be slight overkill for an undergraduate-level study, but it certainly won’t be missing anything.

How long should my research paper be?

This depends entirely on your university’s specific requirements, so it’s best to check with them. We include generic word count ranges for each section within the template, but these are purely indicative. 

What about the research proposal?

If you’re still working on your research proposal, we’ve got a template for that here .

We’ve also got loads of proposal-related guides and videos over on the Grad Coach blog .

How do I write a literature review?

We have a wealth of free resources on the Grad Coach Blog that unpack how to write a literature review from scratch. You can check out the literature review section of the blog here.

How do I create a research methodology?

We have a wealth of free resources on the Grad Coach Blog that unpack research methodology, both qualitative and quantitative. You can check out the methodology section of the blog here.

Can I share this research paper template with my friends/colleagues?

Yes, you’re welcome to share this template. If you want to post about it on your blog or social media, all we ask is that you reference this page as your source.

Can Grad Coach help me with my research paper?

Within the template, you’ll find plain-language explanations of each section, which should give you a fair amount of guidance. However, you’re also welcome to consider our private coaching services .

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Types of Research Papers.

Research papers play a crucial role in academia, allowing scholars to explore and contribute to the existing knowledge within their respective fields. However, not all research papers are created equal. There are various types of research papers, each serving a specific purpose and requiring distinct methodologies and writing styles. In this blog post, we will provide a comprehensive overview of the different types of research papers, shedding light on their characteristics, purposes, and key elements.

1. Descriptive Research Papers:  

Descriptive research papers aim to provide a detailed account or description of a particular phenomenon, event, or subject. These papers focus on answering questions related to “what” and “how.” Descriptive research papers often employ observational methods, surveys, or interviews to collect data. They are valuable in establishing a baseline understanding of a topic or providing an overview of existing conditions.

2. Experimental Research Papers: 

Experimental research papers involve conducting controlled experiments to investigate cause-and-effect relationships between variables. Researchers manipulate independent variables, measure dependent variables, and aim to establish causal relationships. These papers typically include sections such as hypothesis formulation, methodology, data analysis, and conclusion. Experimental research papers are common in scientific disciplines.

3. Analytical Research Papers: 

Analytical research papers emphasize critical thinking and analysis. They delve deep into a specific topic or issue, critically examining existing literature, theories, or concepts. These papers often require the author to evaluate different perspectives, present arguments, and provide evidence to support their claims. Analytical research papers contribute to the development of new theories or the refinement of existing ones.

4. Review Research Papers: 

Review research papers provide a comprehensive summary and evaluation of existing literature on a specific topic. They synthesize and analyze multiple sources to identify trends, gaps, or controversies in the field. Review papers help researchers gain a broader understanding of the current state of knowledge and identify areas that require further investigation. They are often published in academic journals and serve as valuable resources for scholars and students.

5. Argumentative Research Papers: 

Argumentative research papers aim to persuade the reader by presenting a clear argument or position on a specific issue. These papers require the author to gather evidence, present logical reasoning, and counter opposing viewpoints. Argumentative research papers are prevalent in disciplines such as philosophy, social sciences, and humanities, where different perspectives and debates are common.

6. Case Study Research Papers:  

Case study research papers provide an in-depth analysis of a particular individual, group, organization, or event. They involve detailed examination and interpretation of qualitative or quantitative data, often collected through interviews, observations, or document analysis. Case studies offer insights into complex phenomena and allow researchers to explore real-life contexts and unique scenarios.

7. Argumentative Research Papers:  

8. comparative research papers:  .

Comparative research papers involve the systematic comparison of two or more entities, such as countries, cultures, policies, or systems. These papers focus on identifying similarities, differences, and patterns to gain insights into the researched subjects. Comparative research papers can be qualitative or quantitative in nature, depending on the research objectives and methodology.

9. Historical Research Papers:  

Historical research papers examine past events, people, or periods to understand their impact on the present. These papers involve extensive archival research, analysis of primary and secondary sources, and interpretation of historical data. Historical research papers contribute to the understanding of historical contexts, social changes, and the evolution of societies.

10. Theoretical or Conceptual Research Papers:  

Theoretical or conceptual research papers aim to develop or refine theories, models, or frameworks within a particular field. These papers often involve proposing new concepts, exploring relationships between existing theories, or providing theoretical explanations for observed phenomena. Theoretical research papers contribute to advancing knowledge and understanding within a specific discipline.

11. Action Research Papers: 

Action research papers focus on addressing practical problems or challenges within a specific context. They involve collaboration between researchers and practitioners to develop and implement interventions, assess their effectiveness, and reflect on the outcomes. Action research papers emphasize the application of research findings to solve real-world problems and bring about positive change.

Conclusion.

Understanding the different types of research papers is essential for researchers and students alike. Each type serves a distinct purpose, requires specific methodologies, and follows unique writing styles. Whether it’s exploring a phenomenon, conducting experiments, analyzing existing literature, or presenting arguments, researchers must select the appropriate type of research paper to effectively communicate their findings and contribute to the knowledge base of their respective fields.

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Research Method

Home » Research Data – Types Methods and Examples

Research Data – Types Methods and Examples

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Research Data

Research Data

Research data refers to any information or evidence gathered through systematic investigation or experimentation to support or refute a hypothesis or answer a research question.

It includes both primary and secondary data, and can be in various formats such as numerical, textual, audiovisual, or visual. Research data plays a critical role in scientific inquiry and is often subject to rigorous analysis, interpretation, and dissemination to advance knowledge and inform decision-making.

Types of Research Data

There are generally four types of research data:

Quantitative Data

This type of data involves the collection and analysis of numerical data. It is often gathered through surveys, experiments, or other types of structured data collection methods. Quantitative data can be analyzed using statistical techniques to identify patterns or relationships in the data.

Qualitative Data

This type of data is non-numerical and often involves the collection and analysis of words, images, or sounds. It is often gathered through methods such as interviews, focus groups, or observation. Qualitative data can be analyzed using techniques such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or discourse analysis.

Primary Data

This type of data is collected by the researcher directly from the source. It can include data gathered through surveys, experiments, interviews, or observation. Primary data is often used to answer specific research questions or to test hypotheses.

Secondary Data

This type of data is collected by someone other than the researcher. It can include data from sources such as government reports, academic journals, or industry publications. Secondary data is often used to supplement or support primary data or to provide context for a research project.

Research Data Formates

There are several formats in which research data can be collected and stored. Some common formats include:

  • Text : This format includes any type of written data, such as interview transcripts, survey responses, or open-ended questionnaire answers.
  • Numeric : This format includes any data that can be expressed as numerical values, such as measurements or counts.
  • Audio : This format includes any recorded data in an audio form, such as interviews or focus group discussions.
  • Video : This format includes any recorded data in a video form, such as observations of behavior or experimental procedures.
  • Images : This format includes any visual data, such as photographs, drawings, or scans of documents.
  • Mixed media: This format includes any combination of the above formats, such as a survey response that includes both text and numeric data, or an observation study that includes both video and audio recordings.
  • Sensor Data: This format includes data collected from various sensors or devices, such as GPS, accelerometers, or heart rate monitors.
  • Social Media Data: This format includes data collected from social media platforms, such as tweets, posts, or comments.
  • Geographic Information System (GIS) Data: This format includes data with a spatial component, such as maps or satellite imagery.
  • Machine-Readable Data : This format includes data that can be read and processed by machines, such as data in XML or JSON format.
  • Metadata: This format includes data that describes other data, such as information about the source, format, or content of a dataset.

Data Collection Methods

Some common research data collection methods include:

  • Surveys : Surveys involve asking participants to answer a series of questions about a particular topic. Surveys can be conducted online, over the phone, or in person.
  • Interviews : Interviews involve asking participants a series of open-ended questions in order to gather detailed information about their experiences or perspectives. Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or via video conferencing.
  • Focus groups: Focus groups involve bringing together a small group of participants to discuss a particular topic or issue in depth. The group is typically led by a moderator who asks questions and encourages discussion among the participants.
  • Observations : Observations involve watching and recording behaviors or events as they naturally occur. Observations can be conducted in person or through the use of video or audio recordings.
  • Experiments : Experiments involve manipulating one or more variables in order to measure the effect on an outcome of interest. Experiments can be conducted in a laboratory or in the field.
  • Case studies: Case studies involve conducting an in-depth analysis of a particular individual, group, or organization. Case studies typically involve gathering data from multiple sources, including interviews, observations, and document analysis.
  • Secondary data analysis: Secondary data analysis involves analyzing existing data that was collected for another purpose. Examples of secondary data sources include government records, academic research studies, and market research reports.

Analysis Methods

Some common research data analysis methods include:

  • Descriptive statistics: Descriptive statistics involve summarizing and describing the main features of a dataset, such as the mean, median, and standard deviation. Descriptive statistics are often used to provide an initial overview of the data.
  • Inferential statistics: Inferential statistics involve using statistical techniques to draw conclusions about a population based on a sample of data. Inferential statistics are often used to test hypotheses and determine the statistical significance of relationships between variables.
  • Content analysis : Content analysis involves analyzing the content of text, audio, or video data to identify patterns, themes, or other meaningful features. Content analysis is often used in qualitative research to analyze open-ended survey responses, interviews, or other types of text data.
  • Discourse analysis: Discourse analysis involves analyzing the language used in text, audio, or video data to understand how meaning is constructed and communicated. Discourse analysis is often used in qualitative research to analyze interviews, focus group discussions, or other types of text data.
  • Grounded theory : Grounded theory involves developing a theory or model based on an analysis of qualitative data. Grounded theory is often used in exploratory research to generate new insights and hypotheses.
  • Network analysis: Network analysis involves analyzing the relationships between entities, such as individuals or organizations, in a network. Network analysis is often used in social network analysis to understand the structure and dynamics of social networks.
  • Structural equation modeling: Structural equation modeling involves using statistical techniques to test complex models that include multiple variables and relationships. Structural equation modeling is often used in social science research to test theories about the relationships between variables.

Purpose of Research Data

Research data serves several important purposes, including:

  • Supporting scientific discoveries : Research data provides the basis for scientific discoveries and innovations. Researchers use data to test hypotheses, develop new theories, and advance scientific knowledge in their field.
  • Validating research findings: Research data provides the evidence necessary to validate research findings. By analyzing and interpreting data, researchers can determine the statistical significance of relationships between variables and draw conclusions about the research question.
  • Informing policy decisions: Research data can be used to inform policy decisions by providing evidence about the effectiveness of different policies or interventions. Policymakers can use data to make informed decisions about how to allocate resources and address social or economic challenges.
  • Promoting transparency and accountability: Research data promotes transparency and accountability by allowing other researchers to verify and replicate research findings. Data sharing also promotes transparency by allowing others to examine the methods used to collect and analyze data.
  • Supporting education and training: Research data can be used to support education and training by providing examples of research methods, data analysis techniques, and research findings. Students and researchers can use data to learn new research skills and to develop their own research projects.

Applications of Research Data

Research data has numerous applications across various fields, including social sciences, natural sciences, engineering, and health sciences. The applications of research data can be broadly classified into the following categories:

  • Academic research: Research data is widely used in academic research to test hypotheses, develop new theories, and advance scientific knowledge. Researchers use data to explore complex relationships between variables, identify patterns, and make predictions.
  • Business and industry: Research data is used in business and industry to make informed decisions about product development, marketing, and customer engagement. Data analysis techniques such as market research, customer analytics, and financial analysis are widely used to gain insights and inform strategic decision-making.
  • Healthcare: Research data is used in healthcare to improve patient outcomes, develop new treatments, and identify health risks. Researchers use data to analyze health trends, track disease outbreaks, and develop evidence-based treatment protocols.
  • Education : Research data is used in education to improve teaching and learning outcomes. Data analysis techniques such as assessments, surveys, and evaluations are used to measure student progress, evaluate program effectiveness, and inform policy decisions.
  • Government and public policy: Research data is used in government and public policy to inform decision-making and policy development. Data analysis techniques such as demographic analysis, cost-benefit analysis, and impact evaluation are widely used to evaluate policy effectiveness, identify social or economic challenges, and develop evidence-based policy solutions.
  • Environmental management: Research data is used in environmental management to monitor environmental conditions, track changes, and identify emerging threats. Data analysis techniques such as spatial analysis, remote sensing, and modeling are used to map environmental features, monitor ecosystem health, and inform policy decisions.

Advantages of Research Data

Research data has numerous advantages, including:

  • Empirical evidence: Research data provides empirical evidence that can be used to support or refute theories, test hypotheses, and inform decision-making. This evidence-based approach helps to ensure that decisions are based on objective, measurable data rather than subjective opinions or assumptions.
  • Accuracy and reliability : Research data is typically collected using rigorous scientific methods and protocols, which helps to ensure its accuracy and reliability. Data can be validated and verified using statistical methods, which further enhances its credibility.
  • Replicability: Research data can be replicated and validated by other researchers, which helps to promote transparency and accountability in research. By making data available for others to analyze and interpret, researchers can ensure that their findings are robust and reliable.
  • Insights and discoveries : Research data can provide insights into complex relationships between variables, identify patterns and trends, and reveal new discoveries. These insights can lead to the development of new theories, treatments, and interventions that can improve outcomes in various fields.
  • Informed decision-making: Research data can inform decision-making in a range of fields, including healthcare, business, education, and public policy. Data analysis techniques can be used to identify trends, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform policy decisions.
  • Efficiency and cost-effectiveness: Research data can help to improve efficiency and cost-effectiveness by identifying areas where resources can be directed most effectively. By using data to identify the most promising approaches or interventions, researchers can optimize the use of resources and improve outcomes.

Limitations of Research Data

Research data has several limitations that researchers should be aware of, including:

  • Bias and subjectivity: Research data can be influenced by biases and subjectivity, which can affect the accuracy and reliability of the data. Researchers must take steps to minimize bias and subjectivity in data collection and analysis.
  • Incomplete data : Research data can be incomplete or missing, which can affect the validity of the findings. Researchers must ensure that data is complete and representative to ensure that their findings are reliable.
  • Limited scope: Research data may be limited in scope, which can limit the generalizability of the findings. Researchers must carefully consider the scope of their research and ensure that their findings are applicable to the broader population.
  • Data quality: Research data can be affected by issues such as measurement error, data entry errors, and missing data, which can affect the quality of the data. Researchers must ensure that data is collected and analyzed using rigorous methods to minimize these issues.
  • Ethical concerns: Research data can raise ethical concerns, particularly when it involves human subjects. Researchers must ensure that their research complies with ethical standards and protects the rights and privacy of human subjects.
  • Data security: Research data must be protected to prevent unauthorized access or use. Researchers must ensure that data is stored and transmitted securely to protect the confidentiality and integrity of the data.

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Study finds that urban agriculture must be carefully planned to have climate benefits

  • Jim Erickson

Preparing seedlings for planting at a collective garden in London, England. Urban food production spaces like this can provide numerous social and community benefits but require careful crop selection and management to cut the carbon footprints of cities. Image credit: Victoria Schoen

A new University of Michigan-led international study finds that fruits and vegetables grown in urban farms and gardens have a carbon footprint that is, on average, six times greater than conventionally grown produce.

However, a few city-grown crops equaled or outperformed conventional agriculture under certain conditions. Tomatoes grown in the soil of open-air urban plots had a lower carbon intensity than tomatoes grown in conventional greenhouses, while the emissions difference between conventional and urban agriculture vanished for air-freighted crops like asparagus.

“The exceptions revealed by our study suggest that urban agriculture practitioners can reduce their climate impacts by cultivating crops that are typically greenhouse-grown or air-freighted, in addition to making changes in site design and management,” said study co-lead author Jason Hawes , a doctoral student at U-M’s School for Environment and Sustainability.

“Urban agriculture offers a variety of social, nutritional and place-based environmental benefits, which make it an appealing feature of future sustainable cities. This work shines light on ways to ensure that urban agriculture benefits the climate, as well as the people and places it serves.”

Urban garden in Nantes, France. Image credit: Baptiste Grard

Urban agriculture, the practice of farming within the confines of a city, is becoming increasingly popular worldwide and is touted as a way to make cities and urban food systems more sustainable. By some estimates, between 20% and 30% of the global urban population engages in some form of urban agriculture.

Despite strong evidence of the social and nutritional benefits of urban agriculture, its carbon footprint remains understudied. Most previously published studies have focused on high-tech, energy-intensive forms of UA—such as vertical farms and rooftop greenhouses—even though the vast majority of urban farms are decidedly low-tech: crops grown in soil on open-air plots.

The new U-M-led study, published online Jan. 22 in the journal Nature Cities, aimed to fill some of the knowledge gaps by comparing the carbon footprints of food produced at low-tech urban agriculture sites to conventional crops. It used data from 73 urban farms and gardens in five countries and is the largest published study to compare the carbon footprints of urban and conventional agriculture.

“Beyond food production, urban food growers experience mental and physical health benefits, share environmental education, and enable community capacity-building,” Hawes said. “They also cultivate environmental improvements, offering homes for bees and urban wildlife as well as some protection from the urban heat island effect. In a recent project, we partnered with individual gardeners, volunteers, and farm managers to explore these benefits, while also assessing the carbon footprint of the practice.”

Three types of urban agriculture sites were analyzed: urban farms (professionally managed and focused on food production), individual gardens (small plots managed by single gardeners) and collective gardens (communal spaces managed by groups of gardeners).

For each site, the researchers calculated the climate-altering greenhouse gas emissions associated with on-farm materials and activities over the lifetime of the farm. The emissions, expressed in kilograms of carbon dioxide equivalents per serving of food, were then compared to foods raised by conventional methods.

On average, food produced through urban agriculture emitted 0.42 kilograms of carbon dioxide equivalents per serving, six times higher than the 0.07 kg CO2e per serving of conventionally grown produce.

“By assessing actual inputs and outputs on urban agriculture sites, we were able to assign climate change impacts to each serving of produce,” said study co-lead author Benjamin Goldstein , assistant professor at U-M’s School for Environment and Sustainability. “This dataset reveals that urban agriculture has higher carbon emissions per serving of fruit or vegetable than conventional agriculture—with a few exceptions.”

Joshua Newell , professor and co-director of the Center for Sustainable Systems at SEAS, led the University of Michigan portion of the project. The U-M researchers formed an international team of collaborators from universities near the various food-growing sites. Ten of those collaborators are co-authors of the Nature Cities study.

Farmers and gardeners at urban agriculture sites in France, Germany, Poland, the United Kingdom and the United States were recruited as citizen scientists and used daily diary entries to record inputs and harvests from their food-growing sites throughout the 2019 season.

Inputs to the urban agriculture sites fell into three main categories: infrastructure (such as the raised beds in which food is grown, or pathways between plots), supplies (including compost, fertilizer, weed-blocking fabric and gasoline for machinery), and irrigation water.

Urban collective garden at a New York City Housing Authority site. The garden provides educational and recreational opportunities for residents, in addition to fresh produce. Image credit: Nevin Cohen

“Most of the climate impacts at urban farms are driven by the materials used to construct them—the infrastructure,” Goldstein said. “These farms typically only operate for a few years or a decade, so the greenhouse gases used to produce those materials are not used effectively. Conventional agriculture, on the other hand, is very efficient and hard to compete with.”

For example, conventional farms often grow a single crop with the help of pesticides and fertilizers, resulting in larger harvests and a reduced carbon footprint when compared to urban farms, he said.

The researchers identified three best practices crucial to making low-tech urban agriculture more carbon-competitive with conventional agriculture:

  • Extend infrastructure lifetimes. Extend the lifetime of UA materials and structures such as raised beds, composting infrastructure and sheds. A raised bed used for five years will have approximately four times the environmental impact, per serving of food, as a raised bed used for 20 years.
  • Use urban wastes as UA inputs. Conserve carbon by engaging in “urban symbiosis,” which includes giving a second life to used materials, such as construction debris and demolition waste, that are unsuitable for new construction but potentially useful for UA. The most well-known symbiotic relationship between cities and UA is composting. The category also includes using rainwater and recycled grey water for irrigation.
  • Generate high levels of social benefits. In a survey conducted for the study, UA farmers and gardeners overwhelmingly reported improved mental health, diet and social networks. While increasing these “nonfood outputs” of UA does not reduce its carbon footprint, “growing spaces which maximize social benefits can outcompete conventional agriculture when UA benefits are considered holistically,” according to the study authors.

Co-authors of the Nature Cities paper are from McGill University in Canada, University Paris-Saclay and the Agroecology and Environmental Research Unit in France, the University of Kent in the United Kingdom, ILS Research in Germany, City University of New York and Adam Mickiewicz University in Poland.

Support for the project was provided by the UK Economic and Social Research Council, German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, French National Research Agency, U.S. National Science Foundation, Poland’s National Science Centre, and the European Union’s Horizon 202 research and innovation program.

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Impacts of Substance Use/Exposure on Early Brain

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The developing brain is highly susceptible to the effects of substances exposure, making it particularly vulnerable during the early stages of life. Recognizing the specific impacts that substance exposure can have during this critical period is important for the promotion of brain health and preventing ...

Keywords : Early brain, Substance use, Brain development

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Wage Growth Disparities by Gender and Race/Ethnicity among Entrants to Mid-Level Occupations in the United States: Findings from the Career Trajectories and Occupational Transitions Study

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The career pathways approach to workforce development emerged to help workers with lower levels of formal education advance to better paying jobs by earning in-demand postsecondary credentials. The approach involves articulated steps of education, training, and jobs within an industry sector or occupational cluster, combined with other services and employer connections to support participant success. To advance the evidence base in the career pathways field, the Descriptive & Analytical Career Pathways Project (D&A CP Project) includes three sub-studies, each addressing different evidence gaps through distinct data sources and methods.

This paper on wage growth disparities was completed as part of the Career Trajectories and Occupational Transitions (CTOT) Study. This paper presents a new analysis examining gender and racial/ethnic differences in wage growth trends among workers who take jobs in mid-level occupations that require some preparation beyond a high school degree, but less than a four-year college degree—the types of occupations that career pathways programs generally target. Women and workers of color constitute a large proportion of individuals served by career pathways programs, and past research has shown large gaps in employment outcomes by gender and race/ethnicity.

The study used panel surveys that follow individuals for decades to examine wage growth 10 years after workers entered occupations. The study finds that otherwise similar workers entering the same mid-level occupations experience large gender and racial/ethnic disparities in wage growth.

The study also finds: • Wage growth disparities widen steadily over the course of 10 years. • When individuals are grouped by race/ethnicity and gender, Black and Hispanic women experience the least wage growth of all groups. • Wage growth disparities are pervasive across occupational clusters. • Women experience less wage growth than men despite being more likely to go on to obtain additional postsecondary degrees. • Wage growth disparities cannot be explained by differences in other career-related outcomes, such as time spent not working or in advancement to higher-level occupations.

The other two sub-studies in the D&A CP Project include a Meta-Analysis Study and the Career Trajectories and Occupational Transitions (CTOT) Study.

In addition to this paper, the CTOT Study includes a full report from an analysis of career trajectories and occupational transitions; detailed appendices for healthcare, early care and education, information technology, and production/manufacturing; public use data; and a dashboard.

The D&A CP Project also produced a career pathways timeline as well as an early brief describing highlights from a scan of the research and an accompanying research and evaluation matrix.

The other two sub-studies in the D&A CP Project include a Meta-Analysis Study and Machine Learning Study.

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  • The four main types of essay | Quick guide with examples

The Four Main Types of Essay | Quick Guide with Examples

Published on September 4, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

An essay is a focused piece of writing designed to inform or persuade. There are many different types of essay, but they are often defined in four categories: argumentative, expository, narrative, and descriptive essays.

Argumentative and expository essays are focused on conveying information and making clear points, while narrative and descriptive essays are about exercising creativity and writing in an interesting way. At university level, argumentative essays are the most common type. 

In high school and college, you will also often have to write textual analysis essays, which test your skills in close reading and interpretation.

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Argumentative essays, expository essays, narrative essays, descriptive essays, textual analysis essays, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about types of essays.

An argumentative essay presents an extended, evidence-based argument. It requires a strong thesis statement —a clearly defined stance on your topic. Your aim is to convince the reader of your thesis using evidence (such as quotations ) and analysis.

Argumentative essays test your ability to research and present your own position on a topic. This is the most common type of essay at college level—most papers you write will involve some kind of argumentation.

The essay is divided into an introduction, body, and conclusion:

  • The introduction provides your topic and thesis statement
  • The body presents your evidence and arguments
  • The conclusion summarizes your argument and emphasizes its importance

The example below is a paragraph from the body of an argumentative essay about the effects of the internet on education. Mouse over it to learn more.

A common frustration for teachers is students’ use of Wikipedia as a source in their writing. Its prevalence among students is not exaggerated; a survey found that the vast majority of the students surveyed used Wikipedia (Head & Eisenberg, 2010). An article in The Guardian stresses a common objection to its use: “a reliance on Wikipedia can discourage students from engaging with genuine academic writing” (Coomer, 2013). Teachers are clearly not mistaken in viewing Wikipedia usage as ubiquitous among their students; but the claim that it discourages engagement with academic sources requires further investigation. This point is treated as self-evident by many teachers, but Wikipedia itself explicitly encourages students to look into other sources. Its articles often provide references to academic publications and include warning notes where citations are missing; the site’s own guidelines for research make clear that it should be used as a starting point, emphasizing that users should always “read the references and check whether they really do support what the article says” (“Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia,” 2020). Indeed, for many students, Wikipedia is their first encounter with the concepts of citation and referencing. The use of Wikipedia therefore has a positive side that merits deeper consideration than it often receives.

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An expository essay provides a clear, focused explanation of a topic. It doesn’t require an original argument, just a balanced and well-organized view of the topic.

Expository essays test your familiarity with a topic and your ability to organize and convey information. They are commonly assigned at high school or in exam questions at college level.

The introduction of an expository essay states your topic and provides some general background, the body presents the details, and the conclusion summarizes the information presented.

A typical body paragraph from an expository essay about the invention of the printing press is shown below. Mouse over it to learn more.

The invention of the printing press in 1440 changed this situation dramatically. Johannes Gutenberg, who had worked as a goldsmith, used his knowledge of metals in the design of the press. He made his type from an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony, whose durability allowed for the reliable production of high-quality books. This new technology allowed texts to be reproduced and disseminated on a much larger scale than was previously possible. The Gutenberg Bible appeared in the 1450s, and a large number of printing presses sprang up across the continent in the following decades. Gutenberg’s invention rapidly transformed cultural production in Europe; among other things, it would lead to the Protestant Reformation.

A narrative essay is one that tells a story. This is usually a story about a personal experience you had, but it may also be an imaginative exploration of something you have not experienced.

Narrative essays test your ability to build up a narrative in an engaging, well-structured way. They are much more personal and creative than other kinds of academic writing . Writing a personal statement for an application requires the same skills as a narrative essay.

A narrative essay isn’t strictly divided into introduction, body, and conclusion, but it should still begin by setting up the narrative and finish by expressing the point of the story—what you learned from your experience, or why it made an impression on you.

Mouse over the example below, a short narrative essay responding to the prompt “Write about an experience where you learned something about yourself,” to explore its structure.

Since elementary school, I have always favored subjects like science and math over the humanities. My instinct was always to think of these subjects as more solid and serious than classes like English. If there was no right answer, I thought, why bother? But recently I had an experience that taught me my academic interests are more flexible than I had thought: I took my first philosophy class.

Before I entered the classroom, I was skeptical. I waited outside with the other students and wondered what exactly philosophy would involve—I really had no idea. I imagined something pretty abstract: long, stilted conversations pondering the meaning of life. But what I got was something quite different.

A young man in jeans, Mr. Jones—“but you can call me Rob”—was far from the white-haired, buttoned-up old man I had half-expected. And rather than pulling us into pedantic arguments about obscure philosophical points, Rob engaged us on our level. To talk free will, we looked at our own choices. To talk ethics, we looked at dilemmas we had faced ourselves. By the end of class, I’d discovered that questions with no right answer can turn out to be the most interesting ones.

The experience has taught me to look at things a little more “philosophically”—and not just because it was a philosophy class! I learned that if I let go of my preconceptions, I can actually get a lot out of subjects I was previously dismissive of. The class taught me—in more ways than one—to look at things with an open mind.

A descriptive essay provides a detailed sensory description of something. Like narrative essays, they allow you to be more creative than most academic writing, but they are more tightly focused than narrative essays. You might describe a specific place or object, rather than telling a whole story.

Descriptive essays test your ability to use language creatively, making striking word choices to convey a memorable picture of what you’re describing.

A descriptive essay can be quite loosely structured, though it should usually begin by introducing the object of your description and end by drawing an overall picture of it. The important thing is to use careful word choices and figurative language to create an original description of your object.

Mouse over the example below, a response to the prompt “Describe a place you love to spend time in,” to learn more about descriptive essays.

On Sunday afternoons I like to spend my time in the garden behind my house. The garden is narrow but long, a corridor of green extending from the back of the house, and I sit on a lawn chair at the far end to read and relax. I am in my small peaceful paradise: the shade of the tree, the feel of the grass on my feet, the gentle activity of the fish in the pond beside me.

My cat crosses the garden nimbly and leaps onto the fence to survey it from above. From his perch he can watch over his little kingdom and keep an eye on the neighbours. He does this until the barking of next door’s dog scares him from his post and he bolts for the cat flap to govern from the safety of the kitchen.

With that, I am left alone with the fish, whose whole world is the pond by my feet. The fish explore the pond every day as if for the first time, prodding and inspecting every stone. I sometimes feel the same about sitting here in the garden; I know the place better than anyone, but whenever I return I still feel compelled to pay attention to all its details and novelties—a new bird perched in the tree, the growth of the grass, and the movement of the insects it shelters…

Sitting out in the garden, I feel serene. I feel at home. And yet I always feel there is more to discover. The bounds of my garden may be small, but there is a whole world contained within it, and it is one I will never get tired of inhabiting.

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Though every essay type tests your writing skills, some essays also test your ability to read carefully and critically. In a textual analysis essay, you don’t just present information on a topic, but closely analyze a text to explain how it achieves certain effects.

Rhetorical analysis

A rhetorical analysis looks at a persuasive text (e.g. a speech, an essay, a political cartoon) in terms of the rhetorical devices it uses, and evaluates their effectiveness.

The goal is not to state whether you agree with the author’s argument but to look at how they have constructed it.

The introduction of a rhetorical analysis presents the text, some background information, and your thesis statement; the body comprises the analysis itself; and the conclusion wraps up your analysis of the text, emphasizing its relevance to broader concerns.

The example below is from a rhetorical analysis of Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech . Mouse over it to learn more.

King’s speech is infused with prophetic language throughout. Even before the famous “dream” part of the speech, King’s language consistently strikes a prophetic tone. He refers to the Lincoln Memorial as a “hallowed spot” and speaks of rising “from the dark and desolate valley of segregation” to “make justice a reality for all of God’s children.” The assumption of this prophetic voice constitutes the text’s strongest ethical appeal; after linking himself with political figures like Lincoln and the Founding Fathers, King’s ethos adopts a distinctly religious tone, recalling Biblical prophets and preachers of change from across history. This adds significant force to his words; standing before an audience of hundreds of thousands, he states not just what the future should be, but what it will be: “The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges.” This warning is almost apocalyptic in tone, though it concludes with the positive image of the “bright day of justice.” The power of King’s rhetoric thus stems not only from the pathos of his vision of a brighter future, but from the ethos of the prophetic voice he adopts in expressing this vision.

Literary analysis

A literary analysis essay presents a close reading of a work of literature—e.g. a poem or novel—to explore the choices made by the author and how they help to convey the text’s theme. It is not simply a book report or a review, but an in-depth interpretation of the text.

Literary analysis looks at things like setting, characters, themes, and figurative language. The goal is to closely analyze what the author conveys and how.

The introduction of a literary analysis essay presents the text and background, and provides your thesis statement; the body consists of close readings of the text with quotations and analysis in support of your argument; and the conclusion emphasizes what your approach tells us about the text.

Mouse over the example below, the introduction to a literary analysis essay on Frankenstein , to learn more.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale about the dangers of scientific advancement unrestrained by ethical considerations. In this reading, protagonist Victor Frankenstein is a stable representation of the callous ambition of modern science throughout the novel. This essay, however, argues that far from providing a stable image of the character, Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to portray Frankenstein in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as. This essay begins by exploring the positive portrayal of Frankenstein in the first volume, then moves on to the creature’s perception of him, and finally discusses the third volume’s narrative shift toward viewing Frankenstein as the creature views him.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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At high school and in composition classes at university, you’ll often be told to write a specific type of essay , but you might also just be given prompts.

Look for keywords in these prompts that suggest a certain approach: The word “explain” suggests you should write an expository essay , while the word “describe” implies a descriptive essay . An argumentative essay might be prompted with the word “assess” or “argue.”

The vast majority of essays written at university are some sort of argumentative essay . Almost all academic writing involves building up an argument, though other types of essay might be assigned in composition classes.

Essays can present arguments about all kinds of different topics. For example:

  • In a literary analysis essay, you might make an argument for a specific interpretation of a text
  • In a history essay, you might present an argument for the importance of a particular event
  • In a politics essay, you might argue for the validity of a certain political theory

An argumentative essay tends to be a longer essay involving independent research, and aims to make an original argument about a topic. Its thesis statement makes a contentious claim that must be supported in an objective, evidence-based way.

An expository essay also aims to be objective, but it doesn’t have to make an original argument. Rather, it aims to explain something (e.g., a process or idea) in a clear, concise way. Expository essays are often shorter assignments and rely less on research.

The key difference is that a narrative essay is designed to tell a complete story, while a descriptive essay is meant to convey an intense description of a particular place, object, or concept.

Narrative and descriptive essays both allow you to write more personally and creatively than other kinds of essays , and similar writing skills can apply to both.

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