How to Write a Bibliography for a Research Paper

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Do not try to “wow” your instructor with a long bibliography when your instructor requests only a works cited page. It is tempting, after doing a lot of work to research a paper, to try to include summaries on each source as you write your paper so that your instructor appreciates how much work you did. That is a trap you want to avoid. MLA style, the one that is most commonly followed in high schools and university writing courses, dictates that you include only the works you actually cited in your paper—not all those that you used.

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  • If your assignment calls for a bibliography, list all the sources you consulted in your research.
  • If your assignment calls for a works cited or references page, include only the sources you quote, summarize, paraphrase, or mention in your paper.
  • If your works cited page includes a source that you did not cite in your paper, delete it.
  • All in-text citations that you used at the end of quotations, summaries, and paraphrases to credit others for their ideas,words, and work must be accompanied by a cited reference in the bibliography or works cited. These references must include specific information about the source so that your readers can identify precisely where the information came from.The citation entries on a works cited page typically include the author’s name, the name of the article, the name of the publication, the name of the publisher (for books), where it was published (for books), and when it was published.

The good news is that you do not have to memorize all the many ways the works cited entries should be written. Numerous helpful style guides are available to show you the information that should be included, in what order it should appear, and how to format it. The format often differs according to the style guide you are using. The Modern Language Association (MLA) follows a particular style that is a bit different from APA (American Psychological Association) style, and both are somewhat different from the Chicago Manual of Style (CMS). Always ask your teacher which style you should use.

A bibliography usually appears at the end of a paper on its own separate page. All bibliography entries—books, periodicals, Web sites, and nontext sources such radio broadcasts—are listed together in alphabetical order. Books and articles are alphabetized by the author’s last name.

Most teachers suggest that you follow a standard style for listing different types of sources. If your teacher asks you to use a different form, however, follow his or her instructions. Take pride in your bibliography. It represents some of the most important work you’ve done for your research paper—and using proper form shows that you are a serious and careful researcher.

Bibliography Entry for a Book

A bibliography entry for a book begins with the author’s name, which is written in this order: last name, comma, first name, period. After the author’s name comes the title of the book. If you are handwriting your bibliography, underline each title. If you are working on a computer, put the book title in italicized type. Be sure to capitalize the words in the title correctly, exactly as they are written in the book itself. Following the title is the city where the book was published, followed by a colon, the name of the publisher, a comma, the date published, and a period. Here is an example:

Format : Author’s last name, first name. Book Title. Place of publication: publisher, date of publication.

  • A book with one author : Hartz, Paula.  Abortion: A Doctor’s Perspective, a Woman’s Dilemma . New York: Donald I. Fine, Inc., 1992.
  • A book with two or more authors : Landis, Jean M. and Rita J. Simon.  Intelligence: Nature or Nurture?  New York: HarperCollins, 1998.

Bibliography Entry for a Periodical

A bibliography entry for a periodical differs slightly in form from a bibliography entry for a book. For a magazine article, start with the author’s last name first, followed by a comma, then the first name and a period. Next, write the title of the article in quotation marks, and include a period (or other closing punctuation) inside the closing quotation mark. The title of the magazine is next, underlined or in italic type, depending on whether you are handwriting or using a computer, followed by a period. The date and year, followed by a colon and the pages on which the article appeared, come last. Here is an example:

Format:  Author’s last name, first name. “Title of the Article.” Magazine. Month and year of publication: page numbers.

  • Article in a monthly magazine : Crowley, J.E.,T.E. Levitan and R.P. Quinn.“Seven Deadly Half-Truths About Women.”  Psychology Today  March 1978: 94–106.
  • Article in a weekly magazine : Schwartz, Felice N.“Management,Women, and the New Facts of Life.”  Newsweek  20 July 2006: 21–22.
  • Signed newspaper article : Ferraro, Susan. “In-law and Order: Finding Relative Calm.”  The Daily News  30 June 1998: 73.
  • Unsigned newspaper article : “Beanie Babies May Be a Rotten Nest Egg.”  Chicago Tribune  21 June 2004: 12.

Bibliography Entry for a Web Site

For sources such as Web sites include the information a reader needs to find the source or to know where and when you found it. Always begin with the last name of the author, broadcaster, person you interviewed, and so on. Here is an example of a bibliography for a Web site:

Format : Author.“Document Title.” Publication or Web site title. Date of publication. Date of access.

Example : Dodman, Dr. Nicholas. “Dog-Human Communication.”  Pet Place . 10 November 2006.  23 January 2014 < http://www.petplace.com/dogs/dog-human-communication-2/page1.aspx >

After completing the bibliography you can breathe a huge sigh of relief and pat yourself on the back. You probably plan to turn in your work in printed or handwritten form, but you also may be making an oral presentation. However you plan to present your paper, do your best to show it in its best light. You’ve put a great deal of work and thought into this assignment, so you want your paper to look and sound its best. You’ve completed your research paper!

Back to  How To Write A Research Paper .

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If you are using Chicago style footnotes or endnotes, you should include a bibliography at the end of your paper that provides complete citation information for all of the sources you cite in your paper. Bibliography entries are formatted differently from notes. For bibliography entries, you list the sources alphabetically by last name, so you will list the last name of the author or creator first in each entry. You should single-space within a bibliography entry and double-space between them. When an entry goes longer than one line, use a hanging indent of .5 inches for subsequent lines. Here’s a link to a sample bibliography that shows layout and spacing . You can find a sample of note format here .

Complete note vs. shortened note

Here’s an example of a complete note and a shortened version of a note for a book:

1. Karen Ho, Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street (Durham: Duke University Press, 2009), 27-35.

1. Karen Ho, Liquidated , 27-35.

Note vs. Bibliography entry

The bibliography entry that corresponds with each note is very similar to the longer version of the note, except that the author’s last and first name are reversed in the bibliography entry. To see differences between note and bibliography entries for different types of sources, check this section of the Chicago Manual of Style .

For Liquidated , the bibliography entry would look like this:

Ho, Karen, Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street . Durham: Duke University Press, 2009.

Citing a source with two or three authors

If you are citing a source with two or three authors, list their names in your note in the order they appear in the original source. In the bibliography, invert only the name of the first author and use “and” before the last named author.

1. Melissa Borja and Jacob Gibson, “Internationalism with Evangelical Characteristics: The Case of Evangelical Responses to Southeast Asian Refugees,” The Review of Faith & International Affairs 17, no. 3 (2019): 80-81, https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2019.1643983 .

Shortened note:

1. Borja and Gibson, “Internationalism with Evangelical Characteristics,” 80-81.

Bibliography:

Borja, Melissa, and Jacob Gibson. “Internationalism with Evangelical Characteristics: The Case of Evangelical Responses to Southeast Asian Refugees.” The Review of Faith & International Affairs 17. no. 3 (2019): 80–93. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2019.1643983 .

Citing a source with more than three authors

If you are citing a source with more than three authors, include all of them in the bibliography, but only include the first one in the note, followed by et al. ( et al. is the shortened form of the Latin et alia , which means “and others”).

1. Justine M. Nagurney, et al., “Risk Factors for Disability After Emergency Department Discharge in Older Adults,” Academic Emergency Medicine 27, no. 12 (2020): 1271.

Short version of note:

1. Justine M. Nagurney, et al., “Risk Factors for Disability,” 1271.

Nagurney, Justine M., Ling Han, Linda Leo‐Summers, Heather G. Allore, Thomas M. Gill, and Ula Hwang. “Risk Factors for Disability After Emergency Department Discharge in Older Adults.” Academic Emergency Medicine 27, no. 12 (2020): 1270–78. https://doi.org/10.1111/acem.14088 .

Citing a book consulted online

If you are citing a book you consulted online, you should include a URL, DOI, or the name of the database where you found the book.

1. Karen Ho, Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street (Durham: Duke University Press, 2009), 27-35, https://doi-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/10.1215/9780822391371 .

Bibliography entry:

Ho, Karen. Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street . Durham: Duke University Press, 2009. https://doi-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/10.1215/9780822391371 .

Citing an e-book consulted outside of a database

If you are citing an e-book that you accessed outside of a database, you should indicate the format. If you read the book in a format without fixed page numbers (like Kindle, for example), you should not include the page numbers that you saw as you read. Instead, include chapter or section numbers, if possible.

1. Karen Ho, Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street (Durham: Duke University Press, 2009), chap. 2, Kindle.

Ho, Karen. Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street . Durham: Duke University Press, 2009. Kindle.

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How to Write a Bibliography (MLA, APA Examples)

TeacherVision Staff

Learn how to easily write a bibliography by following the format outlined in this article.

This resource will help your students properly cite different resources in the bibliography of a research paper, and how to format those citations, for books, encyclopedias, films, websites, and people.

What is a bibliography?

According to Infoplease.com, A bibliography is a list of the types of sources you used to get information for your report. It is included at the end of your report, on the last page (or last few pages).

What are the types of bibliography styles (MLA, APA, etc.)?

The 3 most common bibliography/citation styles are:

  • MLA Style: The Modern Language Association works cited page style
  • APA Style: The American Psychological Association style
  • Chicago Style: The bibliography style defined by the Chicago Manual of Style

We’ll give examples of how to create bibliography entries in various styles further down in this article. 

What sources do you put in a bibliography?

An annotated bibliography should include a reference list of any sources you use in writing a research paper. Any printed sources from which you use a text citation, including books, websites, newspaper articles, journal articles, academic writing, online sources (such as PDFs), and magazines should be included in a reference list. In some cases, you may need or want to cite conversations or interviews, works of art, visual works such as movies, television shows, or documentaries - these (and many others) can also be included in a reference list.

How to get started writing your bibliography

You will find it easier to prepare your MLA, APA, or Chicago annotated bibliography if you keep track of each book, encyclopedia, journal article, webpage or online source you use as you are reading and taking notes. Start a preliminary, or draft, bibliography by listing on a separate sheet of paper all your sources. Note down the full title, author’s last name, place of publication, web address, publisher, and date of publication for each source.

Haven't started your paper yet and need an outline? These sample essay outlines include a research paper outline from an actual student paper.

How to write a bibliography step-by-step (with examples)

General Format: Author (last name first). Title of the book. Publisher, Date of publication.

MLA Style: Sibley, David Allen. What It’s Like to Be a Bird. From Flying to Nesting, Eating to Singing, What Birds Are Doing, and Why. Alfred A. Knopf, 2020.

APA Style: Sibley, D.A. (2020). What It’s Like to Be a Bird. From Flying to Nesting, Eating to Singing, What Birds Are Doing, and Why . Alfred A. Knopf.

Notes: Use periods, not commas, to separate the data in the entry. Use a hanging indent if the entry is longer than one line. For APA style, do not use the full author’s first name.

Websites or webpages:

  MLA Style: The SB Nation Family of Sites. Pension Plan Puppets: A Toronto Maple Leafs Blog, 2022, www.pensionplanpuppets.com. Accessed 15 Feb. 2022.

APA Style: American Heart Association. (2022, April 11). How to keep your dog’s heart healthy. https://www.heart.org/en/news/2022/04/11/how-to-keep-your-dogs-heart-healthy

Online news article from a newspaper site:

APA Style: Duehren, A. (2022, April 9). Janet Yellen faces challenge to keep pressure on Russia. Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/janet-yellen-faces-challenge-to-keep-pressure-on-russia-while-addressing-global-consequences-11650366000

Print journal articles:

MLA Style: Booch, Grady. "Patterns in Object-Oriented Design." IEEE Software Engineering, vol. 6, no. 6, 2006, pp. 31-50.

APA Style: Booch, G. (2006). Patterns in object-oriented design. IEEE Software Engineering, 6(6), 31–50.

Note: It is suggested that you include a DOI and a webpage address when referencing either a printed journal article, and electronic journal article, or an journal article that appears in both formats. 

MLA Style: Gamma, Eric, and Peter A. Coad. “Exceptions to the Unified Modeling Language in Python Patterns.” IEEE Software Engineering, vol. 2, no. 6, 8 Mar. 2006, pp. 190-194. O’Reilly Software Engineering Library, https://doi.org/10.1006/se.20061. Accessed 26 May 2009.

APA Style: Masters, H., Barron, J., & Chanda, L. (2017). Motivational interviewing techniques for adolescent populations in substance abuse counseling. NAADAC Notes, 7(8), 7–13. https://www.naadac.com/notes/adolescent-techniques

ML:A Style: @Grady_Booch. “That’s a bold leap over plain old battery power cars.” Twitter, 13 Mar. 2013, 12:06 p.m., https://twitter.com/Grady_Booch/status/1516379006727188483.

APA Style: Westborough Library [@WestboroughLib]. (2022, April 12). Calling all 3rd through 5th grade kids! Join us for the Epic Writing Showdown! Winner receives a prize! Space is limited so register, today. loom.ly/ypaTG9Q [Tweet; thumbnail link to article]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/WestboroughLib/status/1516373550415896588.

Print magazine articles:

General format: Author (last name first), "Article Title." Name of magazine. Volume number, (Date): page numbers.

MLA Style: Stiteler, Sharon. "Tracking Red-Breasted Grosbeak Migration." Minnesota Bird Journal, 7 Sept. 2019, pp. 7-11.

APA Style: Jordan, Jennifer, "Filming at the Top of the World." Museum of Science Magazine. Volume 47, No. 1, (Winter 1998): p. 11.

Print newspaper articles:

General format: Author (last name first), "Article Title." Name of newspaper, city, state of publication. (date): edition if available, section, page number(s).

MLA Style: Adelman, Martin. "Augustus Announces Departure from City Manager Post." New York Times, late ed., 15 February 2020, p. A1

APA Style: Adelman, M. (2020, February 15). Augustus announced departure from city manager post. New York Times, A1.

Encyclopedias:

General Format: Encyclopedia Title, Edition Date. Volume Number, "Article Title," page numbers.

MLA Style: “Gorillas.” The Encyclopedia Brittanica. 15th ed. 2010.

APA Style: Encyclopedia Brittanica, Inc. (1997.) Gorillas. In The Encyclopedia Brittanica (15th ed., pp. 50-51). Encyclopedia Brittanica, Inc.

Personal interviews:

General format: Full name (last name first). Personal Interview. (Occupation.) Date of interview.

MLA Style: Smithfield, Joseph. Personal interview. 19 May 2014.

APA Style: APA does not require a formal citation for a personal interview. Published interviews from other sources should be cited accordingly.

Films and movies:

General format: Title, Director, Distributor, Year.

MLA Style: Fury. Directed by David Ayer, performances by Brad Pitt, Shia LaBeouf, Jon Bernthal, Sony Pictures, 2014.

APA Style: Ayer, D. (Director). (2014). Fury [Film]. Sony Pictures.

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How to Write a Bibliography in APA Format

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

research paper and bibliography

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

research paper and bibliography

  • APA Bibliography
  • How to Create One
  • Why You Need It

Sample Bibliography

An APA format bibliography lists all of the sources that might be used in a paper. A bibliography can be a great tool to help you keep track of information during the research and writing process. In some cases, your instructor may require you to include a bibliography as part of your assignment.

At a Glance

A well-written APA format bibliography can help you keep track of information and sources as you research and write your psychology paper. To create a bibliography, gather up all of the sources that you might use in your paper. Create an APA format reference for each source and then write a brief annotation. Your annotation should be a brief summary of what each reference is about. You can quickly refer to these annotations When writing your paper and determine which to include.

What Is an APA Format Bibliography?

An APA format bibliography is an alphabetical listing of all sources that might be used to write an academic paper, essay, article, or research paper—particularly work that is covering psychology or psychology-related topics. APA format is the official style of the American Psychological Association (APA). This format is used by many psychology professors, students, and researchers.

Even if it is not a required part of your assignment, writing a bibliography can help you keep track of your sources and make it much easier to create your final reference page in proper APA format.

Creating an APA Bibliography

A bibliography is similar in many ways to a reference section , but there are some important differences. While a reference section includes every source that was actually used in your paper, a bibliography may include sources that you considered using but may have dismissed because they were irrelevant or outdated.

Bibliographies can be a great way to keep track of information you might want to use in your paper and to organize the information that you find in different sources. The following are four steps you can follow to create your APA format bibliography.

Start on a New Page

Your working bibliography should be kept separate from the rest of your paper. Start it on a new page, with the title "Bibliography" centered at the top and in bold text. Some people use the title "References" instead, so it's best to check with your professor or instructor about which they prefer you to use.

Gather Your Sources

Compile all the sources you might possibly use in your paper. While you might not use all of these sources in your paper, having a complete list will make it easier later on when you prepare your reference section.

Gathering your sources can be particularly helpful when outlining and writing your paper.

By quickly glancing through your working bibliography, you will be able to get a better idea of which sources will be the most appropriate to support your thesis and main points.

Reference Each Source

Your references should be listed alphabetically by the author’s last name, and they should be double-spaced. The first line of each reference should be flush left, while each additional line of a single reference should be a few spaces to the right of the left margin, which is known as a hanging indent.

The format of each source is as follows for academic journals:

  • Last name of first author (followed by their first initial)
  • The year the source was published in parentheses
  • The title of the source
  • The journal that published the source (in italics)
  • The volume number, if applicable (in italics)
  • The issue number, if applicable
  • Page numbers (in parentheses)
  • The URL or "doi" in lowercase letters followed by a colon and the doi number, if applicable

The following examples are scholarly articles in academic journals, cited in APA format:

  • Kulacaoglu, F., & Kose, S. (2018). Borderline personality disorder (BPD): In the midst of vulnerability, chaos, and awe.  Brain sciences ,  8 (11), 201. doi:10.3390/brainsci8110201
  • Cattane, N., Rossi, R., & Lanfredi, M. (2017). Borderline personality disorder and childhood trauma: exploring the affected biological systems and mechanisms.  BMC Psychiatry,   18 (221). doi:10.1186/s12888-017-1383-2

Visit the American Psychological Association's website for more information on citing other types of sources including online media, audiovisual media, and more.

Create an Annotation for Each Source

Normally a bibliography contains only references' information, but in some cases you might decide to create an annotated bibliography. An annotation is a summary or evaluation of the source.

An annotation is a brief description of approximately 150 words describing the information in the source, your evaluation of its credibility, and how it pertains to your topic. Writing one of these for each piece of research will make your writing process faster and easier.

This step helpful in determining which sources to ultimately use in your paper. Your instructor may also require it as part of the assignment so they can assess your thought process and understanding of your topic.

Reasons to Write a Bibliography

One of the biggest reasons to create an APA format bibliography is simply to make the research and writing process easier.

If you do not have a comprehensive list of all of your references, you might find yourself scrambling to figure out where you found certain bits of information that you included in your paper.

A bibliography is also an important tool that your readers can use to access your sources.

While writing an annotated bibliography might not be required for your assignment, it can be a very useful step. The process of writing an annotation helps you learn more about your topic, develop a deeper understanding of the subject, and become better at evaluating various sources of information.

The following is an example of an APA format bibliography by the website EasyBib:

There are many online resources that demonstrate different formats of bibliographies, including the American Psychological Association website . Purdue University's Online Writing Lab also has examples of formatting an APA format bibliography.

Check out this video on their YouTube channel which provides detailed instructions on formatting an APA style bibliography in Microsoft Word.

You can check out the Purdue site for more information on writing an annotated APA bibliography as well.

How to Write a Research Paper: Annotated Bibliography

  • Anatomy of a Research Paper
  • Developing a Research Focus
  • Background Research Tips
  • Searching Tips
  • Scholarly Journals vs. Popular Journals
  • Thesis Statement
  • Annotated Bibliography
  • Citing Sources
  • Evaluating Sources
  • Literature Review
  • Academic Integrity
  • Scholarship as Conversation
  • Understanding Fake News
  • Data, Information, Knowledge

What is an Annotated Bibliography?

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Check out the resources available from the  Writing Center . 

Write an Annotated Bibliography

What is an annotated bibliography?

It is a list of citations for various books, articles, and other sources on a topic. 

An annotation is a short summary and/or critical evaluation of a source.

Annotated bibliographies answer the question: "What would be the most relevant, most useful, or most up-to-date sources for this topic?"

 Annotated bibliographies can be part of a larger research project, or can be a stand-alone report in itself. 

Annotation versus abstracts 

An abstract is a paragraph at the beginning of the paper that discusses the main point of the original work. They typically do not include evaluation comments. 

Annotations can either be descriptive or evaluative. The annotated bibliography looks like a works cited page but includes an annotation after each source cited. 

Types of Annotations: 

Descriptive Annotations: Focuses on description. Describes the source by answering the following questions. 

Who wrote the document?

What does the document discuss?

When and where was the document written? 

Why was the document produced?

How was it provided to the public?

Evaluative Annotations: Focuses on description and evaluation. Includes a summary and critically assess the work for accuracy, relevance, and quality. 

Evaluative annotations help you learn about your topic, develop a thesis statement, decide if a specific source will be useful for your assignment, and determine if there is enough valid information available to complete your project.

What does the annotation include?

Depending on your assignment and style guide, annotations may include some or all of the following information. 

  • Should be no more than 150 words or 4 to 6 sentences long. 
  • What is the main focus or purpose of the work?
  • Who is the intended audience?
  • ​How useful or relevant was the article to your topic?
  • Was there any unique features that useful to you?
  • What is the background and credibility of the author?
  • What are any conclusions or observations that your reached about the article?

Which citation style to use?

There are many styles manuals with specific instructions on how to format your annotated bibliography. This largely depends on what your instructor prefers or your subject discipline. Check out our citation guides for more information. 

Additional Information

Why doesn't APA have an official APA-approved format for annotated bibliographies?

Always consult your instructor about the format of an annotated bibliography for your class assignments. These guides provide you with examples of various styles for annotated bibliographies and they may not be in the format required by your instructor. 

Citation Examples and Annotations

Book Citation with Descriptive Annotation

Liroff, R. A., & G. G. Davis. (1981). Protecting open space: Land use control in the Adirondack Park. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.

This book describes the implementation of regional planning and land use regulation in the Adirondack Park in upstate New York. The authors provide program evaluations of the Adirondack Park Agency’s regulatory and local planning assistance programs.

Journal Article Citation with Evaluative Annotation

Gottlieb, P. D. (1995). The “golden egg” as a natural resource: Toward a normative theory of growth management. Society and Natural Resources, 8, (5): 49-56.

This article explains the dilemma faced by North American suburbs, which demand both preservation of local amenities (to protect quality of life) and physical development (to expand the tax base). Growth management has been proposed as a policy solution to this dilemma. An analogy is made between this approach and resource economics. The author concludes that the growth management debate raises legitimate issues of sustainability and efficiency.

Examples were taken from http://lib.calpoly.edu/support/how-to/write-an-annotated-bibliography/#samples

Book Citation

Lee, Seok-hoon, Yong-pil Kim, Nigel Hemmington, and Deok-kyun Yun. “Competitive Service Quality Improvement (CSQI): A Case Study in the Fast-Food Industry.” Food Service Technology 4 (2004): 75-84.

In this highly technical paper, three industrial engineering professors in Korea and one services management professor in the UK discuss the mathematical limitations of the popular SERVQUAL scales. Significantly, they also aim to measure service quality in the fast-food industry, a neglected area of study. Unfortunately, the paper’s sophisticated analytical methods make it inaccessible to all but the most expert of researchers.

Battle, Ken. “Child Poverty: The Evolution and Impact of Child Benefits.”  A Question of Commitment: Children's Rights in Canada . Ed. Katherine Covell and R.Brian Howe. Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. 2007. 21-44.

             Ken Battle draws on a close study of government documents, as well as his own research as an extensively-published policy analyst, to explain Canadian child benefit programs.  He outlines some fundamental assumptions supporting the belief that all society members should contribute to the upbringing of children.  His comparison of child poverty rates in a number of countries is a useful wake-up to anyone assuming Canadian society is doing a good job of protecting children.  Battle pays particular attention to the National Child Benefit (NCB), arguing that it did not deserve to be criticized by politicians and journalists.  He outlines the NCB’s development, costs, and benefits, and laments that the Conservative government scaled it back in favour of the inferior Universal Child Care Benefit (UCCB).  However, he relies too heavily on his own work; he is the sole or primary author of almost half the sources in his bibliography.  He could make this work stronger by drawing from others' perspectives and analyses.  However, Battle does offer a valuable source for this essay, because the chapter provides a concise overview of government-funded assistance currently available to parents.  This offers context for analyzing the scope and financial reality of child poverty in Canada.

Journal Article Example

  Kerr, Don and Roderic Beaujot. “Child Poverty and Family Structure in Canada, 1981-1997.”  Journal of Comparative Family Studies  34.3 (2003): 321-335.

             Sociology professors Kerr and Beaujot analyze the demographics of impoverished families.  Drawing on data from Canada’s annual Survey of Consumer Finances, the authors consider whether each family had one or two parents, the age of single parents, and the number of children in each household.  They analyze child poverty rates in light of both these demographic factors and larger economic issues.  Kerr and Beaujot use this data to argue that. 

Examples were taken from  http://libguides.enc.edu/writing_basics/ annotatedbib/mla

Check out these resources for more information about Annotated Bibliographies. 

  • Purdue Owl- Annotated Bibliographies
  • University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill- Annotated Bibliographies
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Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

If you are having trouble locating a specific resource please visit the  search page  or the  Site Map . The Citation Chart  provides a detailed overview of MLA Style, APA Style, and Chicago Manual of Style source documentation by category.

Conducting Research

These OWL resources will help you conduct research using primary source methods, such as interviews and observations, and secondary source methods, such as books, journals, and the Internet. This area also includes materials on evaluating research sources.

Using Research

These OWL resources will help you use the research you have conducted in your documents. This area includes material on quoting and paraphrasing your research sources, as well as material on how to avoid plagiarism.

APA Style (7th Edition)

These OWL resources will help you learn how to use the American Psychological Association (APA) citation and format style. This section contains resources on in-text citation and the References page, as well as APA sample papers, slide presentations, and the APA classroom poster.

These OWL resources will help you learn how to use the Modern Language Association (MLA) citation and format style. This section contains resources on in-text citation and the Works Cited page, as well as MLA sample papers, slide presentations, and the MLA classroom poster

Chicago Manual of Style

This section contains information on the Chicago Manual of Style method of document formatting and citation. These resources follow the 17th edition of the Chicago Manual of Style, which was issued in 2017.

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Style

These resources describe how to structure papers, cite sources, format references, and handle the complexities of tables and figures according to the latest Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) guidelines.

American Medical Association (AMA) Style

These resources provide guidance on how to cite sources using American Medical Association (AMA) Style, 10th Ed., including examples for print and electronic sources.

Research Overview

We live in an age overflowing with sources of information. With so many information sources at our fingertips, knowing where to start, sorting through it all and finding what we want can be overwhelming! This handout provides answers to the following research-related questions: Where do I begin? Where should I look for information? What types of sources are available?

Conducting Primary Research

Primary research involves collecting data about a given subject directly from the real world. This section includes information on what primary research is, how to get started, ethics involved with primary research and different types of research you can do. It includes details about interviews, surveys, observations, and analysis.

Evaluating Sources of Information

Evaluating sources of information is an important step in any research activity. This section provides information on evaluating bibliographic citations, aspects of evaluation, reading evaluation, print vs. online sources, and evaluating Internet sources.

Searching Online

This section covers finding information online. It includes information about search engines, Boolean operators, Web directories, and the invisible Web. It also includes an extensive, annotated links section.

Internet References

This page contains links and short descriptions of writing resources including dictionaries, style manuals, grammar handbooks, and editing resources. It also contains a list of online reference sites, indexes for writers, online libraries, books and e-texts, as well as links to newspapers, news services, journals, and online magazines.

Archival Research

This resource discusses conducting research in a variety of archives. It also discusses a number of considerations and best practices for conducting archival research.

This resources was developed in consultation with Purdue University Virginia Kelly Karnes Archives and Special Collections staff.

The Writing Center • University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Annotated Bibliographies

What this handout is about.

This handout will explain why annotated bibliographies are useful for researchers, provide an explanation of what constitutes an annotation, describe various types of annotations and styles for writing them, and offer multiple examples of annotated bibliographies in the MLA, APA, and CBE/CSE styles of citation.

Introduction

Welcome to the wonderful world of annotated bibliographies! You’re probably already familiar with the need to provide bibliographies, reference pages, and works cited lists to credit your sources when you do a research paper. An annotated bibliography includes descriptions and explanations of your listed sources beyond the basic citation information you usually provide.

Why do an annotated bibliography?

One of the reasons behind citing sources and compiling a general bibliography is so that you can prove you have done some valid research to back up your argument and claims. Readers can refer to a citation in your bibliography and then go look up the material themselves. When inspired by your text or your argument, interested researchers can access your resources. They may wish to double check a claim or interpretation you’ve made, or they may simply wish to continue researching according to their interests. But think about it: even though a bibliography provides a list of research sources of all types that includes publishing information, how much does that really tell a researcher or reader about the sources themselves?

An annotated bibliography provides specific information about each source you have used. As a researcher, you have become an expert on your topic: you have the ability to explain the content of your sources, assess their usefulness, and share this information with others who may be less familiar with them. Think of your paper as part of a conversation with people interested in the same things you are; the annotated bibliography allows you to tell readers what to check out, what might be worth checking out in some situations, and what might not be worth spending the time on. It’s kind of like providing a list of good movies for your classmates to watch and then going over the list with them, telling them why this movie is better than that one or why one student in your class might like a particular movie better than another student would. You want to give your audience enough information to understand basically what the movies are about and to make an informed decision about where to spend their money based on their interests.

What does an annotated bibliography do?

A good annotated bibliography:

  • encourages you to think critically about the content of the works you are using, their place within a field of study, and their relation to your own research and ideas.
  • proves you have read and understand your sources.
  • establishes your work as a valid source and you as a competent researcher.
  • situates your study and topic in a continuing professional conversation.
  • provides a way for others to decide whether a source will be helpful to their research if they read it.
  • could help interested researchers determine whether they are interested in a topic by providing background information and an idea of the kind of work going on in a field.

What elements might an annotation include?

  • Bibliography according to the appropriate citation style (MLA, APA, CBE/CSE, etc.).
  • Explanation of main points and/or purpose of the work—basically, its thesis—which shows among other things that you have read and thoroughly understand the source.
  • Verification or critique of the authority or qualifications of the author.
  • Comments on the worth, effectiveness, and usefulness of the work in terms of both the topic being researched and/or your own research project.
  • The point of view or perspective from which the work was written. For instance, you may note whether the author seemed to have particular biases or was trying to reach a particular audience.
  • Relevant links to other work done in the area, like related sources, possibly including a comparison with some of those already on your list. You may want to establish connections to other aspects of the same argument or opposing views.

The first four elements above are usually a necessary part of the annotated bibliography. Points 5 and 6 may involve a little more analysis of the source, but you may include them in other kinds of annotations besides evaluative ones. Depending on the type of annotation you use, which this handout will address in the next section, there may be additional kinds of information that you will need to include.

For more extensive research papers (probably ten pages or more), you often see resource materials grouped into sub-headed sections based on content, but this probably will not be necessary for the kinds of assignments you’ll be working on. For longer papers, ask your instructor about their preferences concerning annotated bibliographies.

Did you know that annotations have categories and styles?

Decisions, decisions.

As you go through this handout, you’ll see that, before you start, you’ll need to make several decisions about your annotations: citation format, type of annotation, and writing style for the annotation.

First of all, you’ll need to decide which kind of citation format is appropriate to the paper and its sources, for instance, MLA or APA. This may influence the format of the annotations and bibliography. Typically, bibliographies should be double-spaced and use normal margins (you may want to check with your instructor, since they may have a different style they want you to follow).

MLA (Modern Language Association)

See the UNC Libraries citation tutorial for basic MLA bibliography formatting and rules.

  • MLA documentation is generally used for disciplines in the humanities, such as English, languages, film, and cultural studies or other theoretical studies. These annotations are often summary or analytical annotations.
  • Title your annotated bibliography “Annotated Bibliography” or “Annotated List of Works Cited.”
  • Following MLA format, use a hanging indent for your bibliographic information. This means the first line is not indented and all the other lines are indented four spaces (you may ask your instructor if it’s okay to tab over instead of using four spaces).
  • Begin your annotation immediately after the bibliographic information of the source ends; don’t skip a line down unless you have been told to do so by your instructor.

APA (American Psychological Association)

See the UNC Libraries citation tutorial for basic APA bibliography formatting and rules.

  • Natural and social sciences, such as psychology, nursing, sociology, and social work, use APA documentation. It is also used in economics, business, and criminology. These annotations are often succinct summaries.
  • Annotated bibliographies for APA format do not require a special title. Use the usual “References” designation.
  • Like MLA, APA uses a hanging indent: the first line is set flush with the left margin, and all other lines are indented four spaces (you may ask your instructor if it’s okay to tab over instead of using four spaces).
  • After the bibliographic citation, drop down to the next line to begin the annotation, but don’t skip an extra line.
  • The entire annotation is indented an additional two spaces, so that means each of its lines will be six spaces from the margin (if your instructor has said that it’s okay to tab over instead of using the four spaces rule, indent the annotation two more spaces in from that point).

CBE (Council of Biology Editors)/CSE (Council of Science Editors)

See the UNC Libraries citation tutorial for basic CBE/CSE bibliography formatting and rules.

  • CBE/CSE documentation is used by the plant sciences, zoology, microbiology, and many of the medical sciences.
  • Annotated bibliographies for CBE/CSE format do not require a special title. Use the usual “References,” “Cited References,” or “Literature Cited,” and set it flush with the left margin.
  • Bibliographies for CSE in general are in a slightly smaller font than the rest of the paper.
  • When using the name-year system, as in MLA and APA, the first line of each entry is set flush with the left margin, and all subsequent lines, including the annotation, are indented three or four spaces.
  • When using the citation-sequence method, each entry begins two spaces after the number, and every line, including the annotation, will be indented to match the beginning of the entry, or may be slightly further indented, as in the case of journals.
  • After the bibliographic citation, drop down to the next line to begin the annotation, but don’t skip an extra line. The entire annotation follows the indentation of the bibliographic entry, whether it’s N-Y or C-S format.
  • Annotations in CBE/CSE are generally a smaller font size than the rest of the bibliographic information.

After choosing a documentation format, you’ll choose from a variety of annotation categories presented in the following section. Each type of annotation highlights a particular approach to presenting a source to a reader. For instance, an annotation could provide a summary of the source only, or it could also provide some additional evaluation of that material.

In addition to making choices related to the content of the annotation, you’ll also need to choose a style of writing—for instance, telescopic versus paragraph form. Your writing style isn’t dictated by the content of your annotation. Writing style simply refers to the way you’ve chosen to convey written information. A discussion of writing style follows the section on annotation types.

Types of annotations

As you now know, one annotation does not fit all purposes! There are different kinds of annotations, depending on what might be most important for your reader to learn about a source. Your assignments will usually make it clear which citation format you need to use, but they may not always specify which type of annotation to employ. In that case, you’ll either need to pick your instructor’s brain a little to see what they want or use clue words from the assignment itself to make a decision. For instance, the assignment may tell you that your annotative bibliography should give evidence proving an analytical understanding of the sources you’ve used. The word analytical clues you in to the idea that you must evaluate the sources you’re working with and provide some kind of critique.

Summary annotations

There are two kinds of summarizing annotations, informative and indicative.

Summarizing annotations in general have a couple of defining features:

  • They sum up the content of the source, as a book report might.
  • They give an overview of the arguments and proofs/evidence addressed in the work and note the resulting conclusion.
  • They do not judge the work they are discussing. Leave that to the critical/evaluative annotations.
  • When appropriate, they describe the author’s methodology or approach to material. For instance, you might mention if the source is an ethnography or if the author employs a particular kind of theory.

Informative annotation

Informative annotations sometimes read like straight summaries of the source material, but they often spend a little more time summarizing relevant information about the author or the work itself.

Indicative annotation

Indicative annotation is the second type of summary annotation, but it does not attempt to include actual information from the argument itself. Instead, it gives general information about what kinds of questions or issues are addressed by the work. This sometimes includes the use of chapter titles.

Critical/evaluative

Evaluative annotations don’t just summarize. In addition to tackling the points addressed in summary annotations, evaluative annotations:

  • evaluate the source or author critically (biases, lack of evidence, objective, etc.).
  • show how the work may or may not be useful for a particular field of study or audience.
  • explain how researching this material assisted your own project.

Combination

An annotated bibliography may combine elements of all the types. In fact, most of them fall into this category: a little summarizing and describing, a little evaluation.

Writing style

Ok, next! So what does it mean to use different writing styles as opposed to different kinds of content? Content is what belongs in the annotation, and style is the way you write it up. First, choose which content type you need to compose, and then choose the style you’re going to use to write it

This kind of annotated bibliography is a study in succinctness. It uses a minimalist treatment of both information and sentence structure, without sacrificing clarity. Warning: this kind of writing can be harder than you might think.

Don’t skimp on this kind of annotated bibliography. If your instructor has asked for paragraph form, it likely means that you’ll need to include several elements in the annotation, or that they expect a more in-depth description or evaluation, for instance. Make sure to provide a full paragraph of discussion for each work.

As you can see now, bibliographies and annotations are really a series of organized steps. They require meticulous attention, but in the end, you’ve got an entire testimony to all the research and work you’ve done. At the end of this handout you’ll find examples of informative, indicative, evaluative, combination, telescopic, and paragraph annotated bibliography entries in MLA, APA, and CBE formats. Use these examples as your guide to creating an annotated bibliography that makes you look like the expert you are!

MLA Example

APA Example

CBE Example

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

American Psychological Association. 2010. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . 6th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Bell, I. F., and J. Gallup. 1971. A Reference Guide to English, American, and Canadian Literature . Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.

Bizzell, Patricia, and Bruce Herzburg. 1991. Bedford Bibliography for Teachers of Writing , 3rd ed. Boston: Bedford Books.

Center for Information on Language Teaching, and The English Teaching Information Center of the British Council. 1968. Language-Teaching Bibliography . Cambridge: Cambridge University.

Engle, Michael, Amy Blumenthal, and Tony Cosgrave. 2012. “How to Prepare an Annotated Bibliography.” Olin & Uris Libraries. Cornell University. Last updated September 25, 2012. https://olinuris.library.cornell.edu/content/how-prepare-annotated-bibliography.

Gibaldi, Joseph. 2009. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers , 7th ed. New York: The Modern Language Association of America.

Huth, Edward. 1994. Scientific Style and Format: The CBE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers . New York: University of Cambridge.

Kilborn, Judith. 2004. “MLA Documentation.” LEO: Literacy Education Online. Last updated March 16, 2004. https://leo.stcloudstate.edu/research/mla.html.

Spatt, Brenda. 1991. Writing from Sources , 3rd ed. New York: St. Martin’s.

University of Kansas. 2018. “Bibliographies.” KU Writing Center. Last updated April 2018. http://writing.ku.edu/bibliographies .

University of Wisconsin-Madison. 2019. “Annotated Bibliography.” The Writing Center. Accessed June 14, 2019. https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/annotatedbibliography/ .

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Home / Guides / Citation Guides / MLA Format / Creating an MLA Bibliography

Creating an MLA Bibliography

If you write a research paper in MLA format, then you will need to include a Works Cited page according to the current 9th edition of the Modern Language Association (MLA) guidelines. Along with citing your sources within the body of your paper, you also need to include full citations of all sources at the end of your paper. The references in a bibliography are formatted in the same way as they would be in a Works Cited page. However, a bibliography refers to all works that you have consulted in your research, even if you did not use their information directly in your paper.

When you use the correct MLA bibliography format, it shows the reader what sources you consulted, makes finding your sources easier for the reader, and gives credibility to your work as a researcher and writer. This MLA sample paper will show you how the bibliography is incorporated into the rest of your paper. We also have a guide on APA reference pages , if you are following APA style in your paper.

Works cited or bibliography?

You may be wondering, what is a bibliography, and how is it different from a Works Cited page? The difference between the two is that while a bibliography refers to any source you consulted to write your research paper, a Works Cited page only includes full citations of the sources you quoted or paraphrased within your paper.

Typically, when someone says, “MLA bibliography” they really mean a Works Cited page, since the MLA format usually uses a Works Cited page instead of a bibliography.

A bibliography in MLA format may also refer to a Works Consulted page. If you used other sources that you did not directly quote or paraphrase within the paper, you will need to create a Works Consulted/Additional Resources page. A Works Consulted page starts on a separate page and follows the Works Cited page. It follows the same formatting guidelines as a Works Cited page, but you will use Works Consulted (or Additional Resources) as the title.

If you’re unsure of what to include in your citations list (works cited, works consulted, or both), ask your instructor. For the rest of this article, we will refer to this page as the MLA bibliography.

MLA bibliography formatting guidelines

These are the formatting rules you need to follow to create your bibliography according to MLA’s current edition guidelines. Your first page(s) will be your Works Cited page(s) and include the references that you directly refer to in your paper. Usually, this is all that is needed. If your instructor wants you to also include the works you consulted but did not include in your paper (more like a bibliography), then add Works Consulted or Additional Resources page for these sources.

  • Your MLA Works Cited (and Works Consulted or Additional Resources pages) should begin on a separate page or pages at the end of your essay.
  • Your essay should have a header on every page that includes your last name and the page number.
  • The last name/page number header should be on the top right of each page with a ½ inch margin from the top of the page.
  • One-inch margins.
  • Title the page Works Cited (no italicization or quotation marks) unless otherwise instructed. Center the title. The top should look like this:

research paper and bibliography

  • Only center the Works Cited title; all citations should be left-justified.
  • Double-space citations.
  • Do not add an additional space between citations.
  • After the first line, use a hanging indent of ½ inch on all additional lines of a citation. The hanging indent should look like this:

MLA works cited indent

  • Typically, this is the author’s last name, but sometimes it could be the title of the source if the author’s name is not available.

MLA bibliography works cited page

If you have a Works Consulted or Additional Resources page after your Works Cited page, format it in the same way, but with the title of Works Consulted or Additional Resources instead of Works Cited. Alternatively, your instructor may require a bibliography. If this is the case, all your sources, whether they are cited in your paper are not, are listed on the same page.

MLA citation guidelines

These are the rules you need to follow to create citations for an MLA bibliography. This section contains information on how to correctly use author names, punctuation, capitalization, fonts, page numbers, DOIs, and URLS in the citations on your MLA bibliography.

Author names

After the title Works Cited, the last name of the author of a source should be the first thing to appear on your page.

List the author’s last name followed by a comma, then the first name followed by the middle name or middle initial if applicable, without a comma separating the first and middle names. Add a period after the name.

Rowling, J.K.

Smith, Alexander McCall.

  • Do not include titles such as Dr., Mrs., etc. or professional qualifications such as PhD, M.S., etc. with author names.
  • Include suffixes such as Jr. or III after the author’s first name. Separate the first name and the suffix by a comma unless the suffix is a numeral. For example, to cite an author named John Smith, Jr., you would type Smith, John, Jr.

Sources with two authors

For a source with two authors, list the author names in your citation in the order they appear on the source, not alphabetically.

Type the last name of the first author listed on the source followed by a comma, then the first author’s first name followed by a comma. Then type the word “and” then list the second author’s first name and last name in the standard order. Follow the second name with a period.

Include middle names or initials and suffixes when applicable according to the guidelines for one author as listed above.

1st Author’s Last Name, First Name, and 2nd Author’s First Name Last Name.

Lutz, Lisa, and David Hayward.

Clark, Mary Higgins, and Alafair Burke.

Sources with three or more authors

For a source with three or more authors, only type the last and first name of the first author listed in the source, followed by a comma and the phrase et al., which is Latin for “and others.” Be sure to always place a period after the al in et al. but never after the et.

1st Author’s Last Name, First Name, et al.

Charaipotra, Sona, et al.

Williams, Beatriz, et al. All the Ways We Said Goodbye . HarperLuxe, 2020.

Organizations and corporations as authors

For sources with organizations or corporations listed as the author, type the name of the corporation in place of an author’s name. If the organization begins with an article like a, an, or the, it should be excluded in the Works Cited entry.

Modern Language Association of America. MLA Handbook . 2016.

*Note: If the organization is listed as both the author and the publisher, begin the citation with the title and include the organization’s name within the publisher field instead. 

For a source with no author listed, simply omit the author’s name and begin the citation with the title of the source. Use the first letter of the title when considering alphabetical order in your MLA bibliography.

Capitalization

Use MLA title case when citing titles of sources.

  • Nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, and subordinating conjunctions should be capitalized.
  • Articles, prepositions, and coordinating conjunctions should not be capitalized.

Font formatting

  • Italicize the titles of larger works such as magazines and books. Also, italicize database and website names.
  • Instead of italicization, use quotation marks around titles of shorter works such as poems, short stories, and articles.
  • End all bibliography citations with a period.

Page numbers

Include page numbers in your full citations whenever possible. This helps the reader find the information you cited more quickly than if you just cited the entire source and lends more credibility to your argument. If you cite different pages from the same source within your paper, you should cite the entire source on your MLA bibliography instead of listing all of the page numbers you used.

When including page numbers in a citation, use the abbreviation p. to cite one page and the abbreviation pp. to cite multiple pages with a hyphen between the page numbers.

p. 25 or pp. 16-37

When citing page numbers in MLA, omit the first set of repeated digits.

pp. 365-69, not pp. 365-369

DOIs and URLs

A Digital Object Identifier (DOI) is used to locate and identify an online source. While URLs may change or web pages might be edited or updated, a DOI is permanent and therefore more useful in a source citation.

  • Use a DOI (digital object identifier) whenever possible. Otherwise use a permalink or URL.
  • DOIs should be formatted with “https://doi.org/” before the DOI number.
  • Do not include “http://” or “https://” in your URLs.
  • As either one will be the last part of your citation, place a period after the DOI or URL. (Note that this period is not part of the DOI or URL.)

Butarbutar, R, et al. “Analyzing of Puzzle Local Culture-Based in Teaching English for Young Learners.” IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science , vol. 343, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/343/1/012208.

Accessed dates

Since the previous 8th edition of the MLA Handbook was published, you do NOT need to list an accessed date for a stable source (e.g., online newspaper article, journal article, photograph, etc.). However, including an access date is good to include when a source does not have a publishing date, and some instructors will request that accessed dates be included for all sources.

If you do include an access date, here’s how to format it:

  • Place it at the end of the citation without “http://” or “https://”.
  • Write “Accessed” first, followed by the date accessed.
  • The date accessed should be formatted as Day Month (abbreviated) Year.

Butarbutar, R, et al. “IOPscience.” IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science , IOP Publishing, 1 Oct. 2019, iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1755-1315/343/1/012208/meta. Accessed 8 Oct. 2020.

Note: If you choose to list an accessed date after a DOI, the accessed date part of the citation will follow the period after the DOI and will end with a period at the end of the citation

Butarbutar, R, et al. “Analyzing of Puzzle Local Culture-Based in Teaching English for Young Learners.” IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science , vol. 343, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/343/1/012208. Accessed 8 Oct. 2020.

MLA 8 th edition vs MLA 9 th edition

The 9 th edition of the MLA handbook re-introduces guidelines regarding paper formatting (which were not present in the 8 th edition). The guidance in the 9 th addition is consistent with the guidance in previous editions and expands on the formatting of tables, figures/illustrations, and lists. The 9 th edition also offers new guidance in areas like annotated bibliographies, inclusive language, and footnotes/endnotes.

Many of the differences between the 8 th edition and 9 th edition have to do with the formatting of the core elements in reference list entries. Some of the main changes include:

Written by Grace Turney , freelance writer and artist. Grace is a former librarian and has a Master’s degree in Library Science and Information Technology. 

MLA Formatting Guide

MLA Formatting

Annotated Bibliography

Bibliography

  • Block Quotes
  • et al Usage
  • In-text Citations
  • Paraphrasing
  • Page Numbers
  • Sample Paper
  • Works Cited
  • MLA 8 Updates
  • MLA 9 Updates
  • View MLA Guide

Citation Examples

  • Book Chapter
  • Journal Article
  • Magazine Article
  • Newspaper Article
  • Website (no author)
  • View all MLA Examples

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An MLA bibliography is similar to the Works Cited list that you include at the end of your paper. The only difference between a Works Cited list and a bibliography is that for the former, you need to include the entries for only the sources you cited in the text, whereas for the latter you can also include the sources you consulted to write your paper but didn’t directly cite in your writing. MLA generally prefers Works Cited lists to bibliographies.

If your instructor advises you to create an MLA bibliography, follow the same guidelines you would follow for creating an MLA Works Cited list.

The bibliography list appears at the end of the paper, after any endnotes if they are present.

All margins (top, bottom, left, and right) should be set at 1 inch.

Write the running head in the top right of the page at 0.5 inch from the top. Use the running head “Surname Page #.”

The font should be clear enough to read. Use Times New Roman font of size 12 points.

Entries should be double-spaced. If any entry runs over more than a line, indent the subsequent lines of the entry 0.5 inch from the left margin.

Bibliographic entries are arranged alphabetically according to the first item in each entry.

Title your bibliography as “Bibliography.”

Braidotti, Rosi. The Posthuman . Polity, 2013.

Brisini, Travis. “Phytomorphizing Performance: Plant Performance in an Expanded Field.” Text and Performance Quarterly , vol. 39, 2019,            pp. 1–2.

Riccio, Thomas. “Reimagining Yup’ik and Inupiat Performance.” Northwest Theatre Review , vol. 12, no. 1, 1999, pp. 1–30.

General rules for creating an annotated bibliography

The annotation is given after the source entry and is generally about 100-150 words in length. The annotation should be indented 1 inch from the left margin to distinguish it from the hanging indent within the citation entry.

The annotation, in general, should be written as short phrases. However, you may use full sentences as well.

The annotation for each source is usually no longer than one paragraph. However, if multiple paragraphs are included, indent the second and subsequent paragraphs without any extra line space between them.

The annotation provides basic information about the source, but does not include details about the source, quotes from the author, etc. The information can be descriptive (by generally describing what the source covers) or evaluative (by evaluating the source’s usefulness to the argument in your paper).

Example annotated bibliography

The below is an example of an annotated bibliography:

Morritt, Robert D. Beringia: Archaic Migrations into North America . Cambridge Scholars Pub, 2011.

The author studies the migration of cultures from Asia to North America. The connection between the North American Athabaskan language family and Siberia is presented, together with comparisons and examinations of the implications of linguistics from anthropological, archaeological, and folklore perspectives. This book explores the origins of the earliest people in the Americas, including Siberian, Dene, and Navajo Creation myths; linguistic comparisons between Siberian Ket Navajo and Western Apache; and comparisons between indigenous groups that appear to share the same origin.

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Home » How to Cite Research Paper – All Formats and Examples

How to Cite Research Paper – All Formats and Examples

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Research Paper Citation

Research Paper Citation

Research paper citation refers to the act of acknowledging and referencing a previously published work in a scholarly or academic paper . When citing sources, researchers provide information that allows readers to locate the original source, validate the claims or arguments made in the paper, and give credit to the original author(s) for their work.

The citation may include the author’s name, title of the publication, year of publication, publisher, and other relevant details that allow readers to trace the source of the information. Proper citation is a crucial component of academic writing, as it helps to ensure accuracy, credibility, and transparency in research.

How to Cite Research Paper

There are several formats that are used to cite a research paper. Follow the guide for the Citation of a Research Paper:

Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Publisher, Year of Publication.

Example : Smith, John. The History of the World. Penguin Press, 2010.

Journal Article

Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal, vol. Volume Number, no. Issue Number, Year of Publication, pp. Page Numbers.

Example : Johnson, Emma. “The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture.” Environmental Science Journal, vol. 10, no. 2, 2019, pp. 45-59.

Research Paper

Last Name, First Name. “Title of Paper.” Conference Name, Location, Date of Conference.

Example : Garcia, Maria. “The Importance of Early Childhood Education.” International Conference on Education, Paris, 5-7 June 2018.

Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Webpage.” Website Title, Publisher, Date of Publication, URL.

Example : Smith, John. “The Benefits of Exercise.” Healthline, Healthline Media, 1 March 2022, https://www.healthline.com/health/benefits-of-exercise.

News Article

Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Name of Newspaper, Date of Publication, URL.

Example : Robinson, Sarah. “Biden Announces New Climate Change Policies.” The New York Times, 22 Jan. 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/22/climate/biden-climate-change-policies.html.

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of book. Publisher.

Example: Smith, J. (2010). The History of the World. Penguin Press.

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year of publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, volume number(issue number), page range.

Example: Johnson, E., Smith, K., & Lee, M. (2019). The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture. Environmental Science Journal, 10(2), 45-59.

Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of paper. In Editor First Initial. Last Name (Ed.), Title of Conference Proceedings (page numbers). Publisher.

Example: Garcia, M. (2018). The Importance of Early Childhood Education. In J. Smith (Ed.), Proceedings from the International Conference on Education (pp. 60-75). Springer.

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of webpage. Website name. URL

Example: Smith, J. (2022, March 1). The Benefits of Exercise. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health/benefits-of-exercise

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of article. Newspaper name. URL.

Example: Robinson, S. (2021, January 22). Biden Announces New Climate Change Policies. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/22/climate/biden-climate-change-policies.html

Chicago/Turabian style

Please note that there are two main variations of the Chicago style: the author-date system and the notes and bibliography system. I will provide examples for both systems below.

Author-Date system:

  • In-text citation: (Author Last Name Year, Page Number)
  • Reference list: Author Last Name, First Name. Year. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher.
  • In-text citation: (Smith 2005, 28)
  • Reference list: Smith, John. 2005. The History of America. New York: Penguin Press.

Notes and Bibliography system:

  • Footnote/Endnote citation: Author First Name Last Name, Title of Book (Place of publication: Publisher, Year), Page Number.
  • Bibliography citation: Author Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Place of publication: Publisher, Year.
  • Footnote/Endnote citation: John Smith, The History of America (New York: Penguin Press, 2005), 28.
  • Bibliography citation: Smith, John. The History of America. New York: Penguin Press, 2005.

JOURNAL ARTICLES:

  • Reference list: Author Last Name, First Name. Year. “Article Title.” Journal Title Volume Number (Issue Number): Page Range.
  • In-text citation: (Johnson 2010, 45)
  • Reference list: Johnson, Mary. 2010. “The Impact of Social Media on Society.” Journal of Communication 60(2): 39-56.
  • Footnote/Endnote citation: Author First Name Last Name, “Article Title,” Journal Title Volume Number, Issue Number (Year): Page Range.
  • Bibliography citation: Author Last Name, First Name. “Article Title.” Journal Title Volume Number, Issue Number (Year): Page Range.
  • Footnote/Endnote citation: Mary Johnson, “The Impact of Social Media on Society,” Journal of Communication 60, no. 2 (2010): 39-56.
  • Bibliography citation: Johnson, Mary. “The Impact of Social Media on Society.” Journal of Communication 60, no. 2 (2010): 39-56.

RESEARCH PAPERS:

  • Reference list: Author Last Name, First Name. Year. “Title of Paper.” Conference Proceedings Title, Location, Date. Publisher, Page Range.
  • In-text citation: (Jones 2015, 12)
  • Reference list: Jones, David. 2015. “The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture.” Proceedings of the International Conference on Climate Change, Paris, France, June 1-3, 2015. Springer, 10-20.
  • Footnote/Endnote citation: Author First Name Last Name, “Title of Paper,” Conference Proceedings Title, Location, Date (Place of publication: Publisher, Year), Page Range.
  • Bibliography citation: Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Paper.” Conference Proceedings Title, Location, Date. Place of publication: Publisher, Year.
  • Footnote/Endnote citation: David Jones, “The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture,” Proceedings of the International Conference on Climate Change, Paris, France, June 1-3, 2015 (New York: Springer, 10-20).
  • Bibliography citation: Jones, David. “The Effects of Climate Change on Agriculture.” Proceedings of the International Conference on Climate Change, Paris, France, June 1-3, 2015. New York: Springer, 10-20.
  • In-text citation: (Author Last Name Year)
  • Reference list: Author Last Name, First Name. Year. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name. URL.
  • In-text citation: (Smith 2018)
  • Reference list: Smith, John. 2018. “The Importance of Recycling.” Environmental News Network. https://www.enn.com/articles/54374-the-importance-of-recycling.
  • Footnote/Endnote citation: Author First Name Last Name, “Title of Webpage,” Website Name, URL (accessed Date).
  • Bibliography citation: Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Webpage.” Website Name. URL (accessed Date).
  • Footnote/Endnote citation: John Smith, “The Importance of Recycling,” Environmental News Network, https://www.enn.com/articles/54374-the-importance-of-recycling (accessed April 8, 2023).
  • Bibliography citation: Smith, John. “The Importance of Recycling.” Environmental News Network. https://www.enn.com/articles/54374-the-importance-of-recycling (accessed April 8, 2023).

NEWS ARTICLES:

  • Reference list: Author Last Name, First Name. Year. “Title of Article.” Name of Newspaper, Month Day.
  • In-text citation: (Johnson 2022)
  • Reference list: Johnson, Mary. 2022. “New Study Finds Link Between Coffee and Longevity.” The New York Times, January 15.
  • Footnote/Endnote citation: Author First Name Last Name, “Title of Article,” Name of Newspaper (City), Month Day, Year.
  • Bibliography citation: Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Name of Newspaper (City), Month Day, Year.
  • Footnote/Endnote citation: Mary Johnson, “New Study Finds Link Between Coffee and Longevity,” The New York Times (New York), January 15, 2022.
  • Bibliography citation: Johnson, Mary. “New Study Finds Link Between Coffee and Longevity.” The New York Times (New York), January 15, 2022.

Harvard referencing style

Format: Author’s Last name, First initial. (Year of publication). Title of book. Publisher.

Example: Smith, J. (2008). The Art of War. Random House.

Journal article:

Format: Author’s Last name, First initial. (Year of publication). Title of article. Title of journal, volume number(issue number), page range.

Example: Brown, M. (2012). The impact of social media on business communication. Harvard Business Review, 90(12), 85-92.

Research paper:

Format: Author’s Last name, First initial. (Year of publication). Title of paper. In Editor’s First initial. Last name (Ed.), Title of book (page range). Publisher.

Example: Johnson, R. (2015). The effects of climate change on agriculture. In S. Lee (Ed.), Climate Change and Sustainable Development (pp. 45-62). Springer.

Format: Author’s Last name, First initial. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of page. Website name. URL.

Example: Smith, J. (2017, May 23). The history of the internet. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-the-internet

News article:

Format: Author’s Last name, First initial. (Year, Month Day of publication). Title of article. Title of newspaper, page number (if applicable).

Example: Thompson, E. (2022, January 5). New study finds coffee may lower risk of dementia. The New York Times, A1.

IEEE Format

Author(s). (Year of Publication). Title of Book. Publisher.

Smith, J. K. (2015). The Power of Habit: Why We Do What We Do in Life and Business. Random House.

Journal Article:

Author(s). (Year of Publication). Title of Article. Title of Journal, Volume Number (Issue Number), page numbers.

Johnson, T. J., & Kaye, B. K. (2016). Interactivity and the Future of Journalism. Journalism Studies, 17(2), 228-246.

Author(s). (Year of Publication). Title of Paper. Paper presented at Conference Name, Location.

Jones, L. K., & Brown, M. A. (2018). The Role of Social Media in Political Campaigns. Paper presented at the 2018 International Conference on Social Media and Society, Copenhagen, Denmark.

  • Website: Author(s) or Organization Name. (Year of Publication or Last Update). Title of Webpage. Website Name. URL.

Example: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (2019, August 29). NASA’s Mission to Mars. NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/topics/journeytomars/index.html

  • News Article: Author(s). (Year of Publication). Title of Article. Name of News Source. URL.

Example: Johnson, M. (2022, February 16). Climate Change: Is it Too Late to Save the Planet? CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2022/02/16/world/climate-change-planet-scn/index.html

Vancouver Style

In-text citation: Use superscript numbers to cite sources in the text, e.g., “The study conducted by Smith and Johnson^1 found that…”.

Reference list citation: Format: Author(s). Title of book. Edition if any. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication.

Example: Smith J, Johnson L. Introduction to Molecular Biology. 2nd ed. New York: Wiley-Blackwell; 2015.

In-text citation: Use superscript numbers to cite sources in the text, e.g., “Several studies have reported that^1,2,3…”.

Reference list citation: Format: Author(s). Title of article. Abbreviated name of journal. Year of publication; Volume number (Issue number): Page range.

Example: Jones S, Patel K, Smith J. The effects of exercise on cardiovascular health. J Cardiol. 2018; 25(2): 78-84.

In-text citation: Use superscript numbers to cite sources in the text, e.g., “Previous research has shown that^1,2,3…”.

Reference list citation: Format: Author(s). Title of paper. In: Editor(s). Title of the conference proceedings. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication. Page range.

Example: Johnson L, Smith J. The role of stem cells in tissue regeneration. In: Patel S, ed. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Regenerative Medicine. London: Academic Press; 2016. p. 68-73.

In-text citation: Use superscript numbers to cite sources in the text, e.g., “According to the World Health Organization^1…”.

Reference list citation: Format: Author(s). Title of webpage. Name of website. URL [Accessed Date].

Example: World Health Organization. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) advice for the public. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease/novel-coronavirus-2019/advice-for-public [Accessed 3 March 2023].

In-text citation: Use superscript numbers to cite sources in the text, e.g., “According to the New York Times^1…”.

Reference list citation: Format: Author(s). Title of article. Name of newspaper. Year Month Day; Section (if any): Page number.

Example: Jones S. Study shows that sleep is essential for good health. The New York Times. 2022 Jan 12; Health: A8.

Author(s). Title of Book. Edition Number (if it is not the first edition). Publisher: Place of publication, Year of publication.

Example: Smith, J. Chemistry of Natural Products. 3rd ed.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, 2015.

Journal articles:

Author(s). Article Title. Journal Name Year, Volume, Inclusive Pagination.

Example: Garcia, A. M.; Jones, B. A.; Smith, J. R. Selective Synthesis of Alkenes from Alkynes via Catalytic Hydrogenation. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2019, 141, 10754-10759.

Research papers:

Author(s). Title of Paper. Journal Name Year, Volume, Inclusive Pagination.

Example: Brown, H. D.; Jackson, C. D.; Patel, S. D. A New Approach to Photovoltaic Solar Cells. J. Mater. Chem. 2018, 26, 134-142.

Author(s) (if available). Title of Webpage. Name of Website. URL (accessed Month Day, Year).

Example: National Institutes of Health. Heart Disease and Stroke. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/heart-disease-and-stroke (accessed April 7, 2023).

News articles:

Author(s). Title of Article. Name of News Publication. Date of Publication. URL (accessed Month Day, Year).

Example: Friedman, T. L. The World is Flat. New York Times. April 7, 2023. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/07/opinion/world-flat-globalization.html (accessed April 7, 2023).

In AMA Style Format, the citation for a book should include the following information, in this order:

  • Title of book (in italics)
  • Edition (if applicable)
  • Place of publication
  • Year of publication

Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky SL, et al. Molecular Cell Biology. 4th ed. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman; 2000.

In AMA Style Format, the citation for a journal article should include the following information, in this order:

  • Title of article
  • Abbreviated title of journal (in italics)
  • Year of publication; volume number(issue number):page numbers.

Chen H, Huang Y, Li Y, et al. Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction on depression in adolescents and young adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open. 2020;3(6):e207081. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.7081

In AMA Style Format, the citation for a research paper should include the following information, in this order:

  • Title of paper
  • Name of journal or conference proceeding (in italics)
  • Volume number(issue number):page numbers.

Bredenoord AL, Kroes HY, Cuppen E, Parker M, van Delden JJ. Disclosure of individual genetic data to research participants: the debate reconsidered. Trends Genet. 2011;27(2):41-47. doi:10.1016/j.tig.2010.11.004

In AMA Style Format, the citation for a website should include the following information, in this order:

  • Title of web page or article
  • Name of website (in italics)
  • Date of publication or last update (if available)
  • URL (website address)
  • Date of access (month day, year)

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. How to protect yourself and others. CDC. Published February 11, 2022. Accessed February 14, 2022. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/prevent-getting-sick/prevention.html

In AMA Style Format, the citation for a news article should include the following information, in this order:

  • Name of newspaper or news website (in italics)
  • Date of publication

Gorman J. Scientists use stem cells from frogs to build first living robots. The New York Times. January 13, 2020. Accessed January 14, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/13/science/living-robots-xenobots.html

Bluebook Format

One author: Daniel J. Solove, The Future of Reputation: Gossip, Rumor, and Privacy on the Internet (Yale University Press 2007).

Two or more authors: Martha Nussbaum and Saul Levmore, eds., The Offensive Internet: Speech, Privacy, and Reputation (Harvard University Press 2010).

Journal article

One author: Daniel J. Solove, “A Taxonomy of Privacy,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 154, no. 3 (January 2006): 477-560.

Two or more authors: Ethan Katsh and Andrea Schneider, “The Emergence of Online Dispute Resolution,” Journal of Dispute Resolution 2003, no. 1 (2003): 7-19.

One author: Daniel J. Solove, “A Taxonomy of Privacy,” GWU Law School Public Law Research Paper No. 113, 2005.

Two or more authors: Ethan Katsh and Andrea Schneider, “The Emergence of Online Dispute Resolution,” Cyberlaw Research Paper Series Paper No. 00-5, 2000.

WebsiteElectronic Frontier Foundation, “Surveillance Self-Defense,” accessed April 8, 2023, https://ssd.eff.org/.

News article

One author: Mark Sherman, “Court Deals Major Blow to Net Neutrality Rules,” ABC News, January 14, 2014, https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/wireStory/court-deals-major-blow-net-neutrality-rules-21586820.

Two or more authors: Siobhan Hughes and Brent Kendall, “AT&T Wins Approval to Buy Time Warner,” Wall Street Journal, June 12, 2018, https://www.wsj.com/articles/at-t-wins-approval-to-buy-time-warner-1528847249.

In-Text Citation: (Author’s last name Year of Publication: Page Number)

Example: (Smith 2010: 35)

Reference List Citation: Author’s last name First Initial. Title of Book. Edition. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication.

Example: Smith J. Biology: A Textbook. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2010.

Example: (Johnson 2014: 27)

Reference List Citation: Author’s last name First Initial. Title of Article. Abbreviated Title of Journal. Year of publication;Volume(Issue):Page Numbers.

Example: Johnson S. The role of dopamine in addiction. J Neurosci. 2014;34(8): 2262-2272.

Example: (Brown 2018: 10)

Reference List Citation: Author’s last name First Initial. Title of Paper. Paper presented at: Name of Conference; Date of Conference; Place of Conference.

Example: Brown R. The impact of social media on mental health. Paper presented at: Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association; August 2018; San Francisco, CA.

Example: (World Health Organization 2020: para. 2)

Reference List Citation: Author’s last name First Initial. Title of Webpage. Name of Website. URL. Published date. Accessed date.

Example: World Health Organization. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. WHO website. https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease-coronavirus-2019. Updated August 17, 2020. Accessed September 5, 2021.

Example: (Smith 2019: para. 5)

Reference List Citation: Author’s last name First Initial. Title of Article. Title of Newspaper or Magazine. Year of publication; Month Day:Page Numbers.

Example: Smith K. New study finds link between exercise and mental health. The New York Times. 2019;May 20: A6.

Purpose of Research Paper Citation

The purpose of citing sources in a research paper is to give credit to the original authors and acknowledge their contribution to your work. By citing sources, you are also demonstrating the validity and reliability of your research by showing that you have consulted credible and authoritative sources. Citations help readers to locate the original sources that you have referenced and to verify the accuracy and credibility of your research. Additionally, citing sources is important for avoiding plagiarism, which is the act of presenting someone else’s work as your own. Proper citation also shows that you have conducted a thorough literature review and have used the existing research to inform your own work. Overall, citing sources is an essential aspect of academic writing and is necessary for building credibility, demonstrating research skills, and avoiding plagiarism.

Advantages of Research Paper Citation

There are several advantages of research paper citation, including:

  • Giving credit: By citing the works of other researchers in your field, you are acknowledging their contribution and giving credit where it is due.
  • Strengthening your argument: Citing relevant and reliable sources in your research paper can strengthen your argument and increase its credibility. It shows that you have done your due diligence and considered various perspectives before drawing your conclusions.
  • Demonstrating familiarity with the literature : By citing various sources, you are demonstrating your familiarity with the existing literature in your field. This is important as it shows that you are well-informed about the topic and have done a thorough review of the available research.
  • Providing a roadmap for further research: By citing relevant sources, you are providing a roadmap for further research on the topic. This can be helpful for future researchers who are interested in exploring the same or related issues.
  • Building your own reputation: By citing the works of established researchers in your field, you can build your own reputation as a knowledgeable and informed scholar. This can be particularly helpful if you are early in your career and looking to establish yourself as an expert in your field.

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How to Write a Bibliography for a Research Paper: Guide & Samples

A bibliography is undoubtedly one of the most essential parts of every research paper. A research paper without a bibliography equals poorly conducted research. As such, the importance of a bibliography in a research paper cannot be overemphasized.

To produce well-constructed research, you must consult other authors and use their materials to support your argument. This is the only way to give these authors their credit; by listing them out in your bibliography.

Acknowledging the sources used in writing the topic is an effective approach to avoiding plagiarism in your research. It is also a great way to provide and inform other scholars with sources they may not be aware of. This article seeks to provide the format of bibliography and how to write a good bibliography for your research paper.

What Is a Bibliography in a Research Paper?

Simply put, a bibliography is a list of works used in writing a research paper. Every research paper must contain a list of sources the author used in preparing the research paper. Your source can range from books to scholarly papers, speeches, private records, interviews, letters, websites, and other sources.

Your research paper was not created in a vacuum; you must have consulted other authors or sourced to create enriched content. Therefore, at the end of your research, you must attach a list of all the sources used.

How to Write Bibliography for Research Paper

Writing a bibliography isn’t so hard; all you need is a list of sources used and a format for documenting them. To make things easier for you, prepare a draft comprising all of the sources you must have used. Ensure you include the book’s full title, the author, place of publication, publication date, and publisher. All sources must be listed out alphabetically using the authors’ names.

It is also important to note that there are different formats for writing a bibliography. As such, you must decide which format to employ in your research paper. You can format your work in Modern Language Association (MLA) format, American Psychological Association (APA), or Chicago Manual of Style (CMS). Regardless of which you choose, ensure that it is done correctly.

How to Format a Bibliography

Once you have an idea of how to format a bibliography, most of the work is completed. However, when writing it you need to pay close attention to each format and its content to avoid mixing them up. For printed sources, the bibliography of a research paper should provide the following:

  • Author’s name
  • Title of publication (provide the title of the article if it’s a journal, magazine, or encyclopedia)
  • Date of publication
  • Place of Publication of a book
  • The publishing house of a book
  • Volume number of magazine or encyclopedia
  • The page numbers

To document sources from a website, you need to document the following:

  • The author or editor’s name if there’s any
  • Title of the page
  • The organization of the webpage
  • The URL of the website
  • The date the information was gotten from the website

The common formats for writing a bibliography in a research paper are MLA and APA style. A bibliography is known as “Works Cited” in MLA and on the other hand, it is called “References List” in APA. Though both formats contain similar information about the sources used, there are still slight differences in formatting style. Here’s  what MLA and APA bibliography styles should look like.

How to Write a Bibliography APA

Your research paper’s bibliography must be attached at the end of it with the tag “References” at the center. In addition to this, you need to pay attention to the basics of APA style, such as capitalization, abbreviation, punctuation, underlining or italics, hanging indentation, and others. Here’s a research paper bibliography example in APA style:

Author’s last name, first initial. (Publication date). Book title . City of Publication: Publishing company.

  • For encyclopedia:

Author’s last name, first initial. (Date). Title of Article. Title of Encyclopedia (Volumes, pages). City of Publication: Publishing Company.

  • For magazine and newspaper articles:

Author’s last name, first initial. (Publication Date). Article title. Periodical title, Volume number (issue number if there’s any), page numbers.

How to Write a Bibliography MLA

Bibliography in MLA format is called “Works cited” and must be arranged in alphabetical order according to the author’s name. Here’s the required format for MLA style for varying sources:

“Author’s last name, first name. Book title. Publication City: Publishing company, publication date.”

  • Encyclopedia & dictionary:

“Author’s last name, first name. “Title of Article.” Encyclopedia’s Title. Date.”

  • Magazine & newspaper:

“Author’s last name, first name. “Article title.” Periodical title volume Date: inclusive pages.”

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Title: an interactive agent foundation model.

Abstract: The development of artificial intelligence systems is transitioning from creating static, task-specific models to dynamic, agent-based systems capable of performing well in a wide range of applications. We propose an Interactive Agent Foundation Model that uses a novel multi-task agent training paradigm for training AI agents across a wide range of domains, datasets, and tasks. Our training paradigm unifies diverse pre-training strategies, including visual masked auto-encoders, language modeling, and next-action prediction, enabling a versatile and adaptable AI framework. We demonstrate the performance of our framework across three separate domains -- Robotics, Gaming AI, and Healthcare. Our model demonstrates its ability to generate meaningful and contextually relevant outputs in each area. The strength of our approach lies in its generality, leveraging a variety of data sources such as robotics sequences, gameplay data, large-scale video datasets, and textual information for effective multimodal and multi-task learning. Our approach provides a promising avenue for developing generalist, action-taking, multimodal systems.

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  • Introduction
  • Finding sources

Evaluating sources

  • Integrating sources

Citing sources

Tools and resources, a quick guide to working with sources.

Working with sources is an important skill that you’ll need throughout your academic career.

It includes knowing how to find relevant sources, assessing their authority and credibility, and understanding how to integrate sources into your work with proper referencing.

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Finding relevant sources

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This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 20.2.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

Comparing the Effectiveness of the Blended Delivery Mode With the Face-to-Face Delivery Mode of Smoking Cessation Treatment: Noninferiority Randomized Controlled Trial

Authors of this article:

Author Orcid Image

Original Paper

  • Lutz Siemer 1, 2, 3 , PhD   ; 
  • Marcel E Pieterse 2 , PhD   ; 
  • Somaya Ben Allouch 4, 5 , PhD   ; 
  • Marloes G Postel 3 , PhD   ; 
  • Marjolein G J Brusse-Keizer 6, 7 , PhD  

1 School of Social Work, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, Enschede, Netherlands

2 Department of Psychology, Health and Technology, Centre for eHealth & Well-being Research - Behavioural, Management and Social Sciences, University of Twente, Enschede, Netherlands

3 Research Group Technology, Health & Care, Saxion University of Applied Sciences, Enschede, Netherlands

4 Digital Life Research Group, Amsterdam University of Applied Science, Amsterdam, Netherlands

5 Digital Interactions Lab (DIL), Informatics Institute, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands

6 Medical School Twente, Medisch Spectrum Twente, Enschede, Netherlands

7 Health Technology & Services Research, Technical Medical (TechMed) Centre, University of Twente, Enschede, Netherlands

Corresponding Author:

Lutz Siemer, PhD

School of Social Work

Saxion University of Applied Sciences

M. H. Tromplaan 28

Enschede, 7513 AB

Netherlands

Phone: 31 657459469

Email: [email protected]

Background: Tobacco consumption is a leading cause of death and disease, killing >8 million people each year. Smoking cessation significantly reduces the risk of developing smoking-related diseases. Although combined treatment for addiction is promising, evidence of its effectiveness is still emerging. Currently, there is no published research comparing the effectiveness of blended smoking cessation treatments (BSCTs) with face-to-face (F2F) treatments, where web-based components replace 50% of the F2F components in blended treatment.

Objective: The primary objective of this 2-arm noninferiority randomized controlled trial was to determine whether a BSCT is noninferior to an F2F treatment with identical ingredients in achieving abstinence rates.

Methods: This study included 344 individuals who smoke (at least 1 cigarette per day) attending an outpatient smoking cessation clinic in the Netherlands. The participants received either a blended 50% F2F and 50% web-based BSCT or only F2F treatment with similar content and intensity. The primary outcome measure was cotinine-validated abstinence rates from all smoking products at 3 and 15 months after treatment initiation. Additional measures included carbon monoxide–validated point prevalence abstinence; self-reported point prevalence abstinence; and self-reported continuous abstinence rates at 3, 6, 9, and 15 months after treatment initiation.

Results: None of the 13 outcomes showed statistically confirmed noninferiority of the BSCT, whereas 4 outcomes showed significantly ( P <.001) inferior abstinence rates of the BSCT: cotinine-validated point prevalence abstinence rate at 3 months (difference 12.7, 95% CI 6.2-19.4), self-reported point prevalence abstinence rate at 6 months (difference 19.3, 95% CI 11.5-27.0) and at 15 months (difference 11.7, 95% CI 5.8-17.9), and self-reported continuous abstinence rate at 6 months (difference 13.8, 95% CI 6.8-20.8). The remaining 9 outcomes, including the cotinine-validated point prevalence abstinence rate at 15 months, were inconclusive.

Conclusions: In this high-intensity outpatient smoking cessation trial, the blended mode was predominantly less effective than the traditional F2F mode. The results contradict the widely assumed potential benefits of blended treatment and suggest that further research is needed to identify the critical factors in the design of blended interventions.

Trial Registration: Netherlands Trial Register 27150; https://onderzoekmetmensen.nl/nl/trial/27150

International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID): RR2-doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3851-x

Introduction

Tobacco’s global impact.

According to the World Health Organization [ 1 ], the tobacco epidemic is one of the biggest public health threats the world has ever faced: tobacco kills up to half of its consumers, which means >8 million people every year. Of these, >7 million deaths are because of direct tobacco consumption, whereas approximately 1.2 million are because of the exposure of nonsmokers to passive smoking [ 1 ]. The economic costs of tobacco consumption are considerable and include significant health costs of treating the disease caused by tobacco consumption and the loss of human capital through the morbidity and mortality attributable to tobacco consumption [ 1 ]. Smoking addiction is more prevalent in specific, often susceptible subpopulations, such as individuals in lower education or socioeconomic groups [ 2 ]. Approximately 80% of the world’s 1.1 billion smokers live in low- and middle-income countries, where the burden of tobacco-related diseases and deaths is the highest [ 1 ].

Smoking Cessation Progress

People who stop smoking greatly reduce their risk of disease and early death [ 3 ] and will have major immediate and long-term health benefits [ 4 , 5 ]. Among smokers who are aware of the dangers of tobacco and the benefits of quitting, most want to quit [ 1 ]. Compared with quitting without professional support, smoking cessation treatment can more than double the success rates of quitting attempts [ 1 ]; this ultimately results—for treatments comparable with those in this study—in estimated point prevalence abstinence rates of 28.4% (95% CI 21.3-35.5) for treatments with a total amount of contact time of 91 to 300 minutes and of 24.7% (95% CI 21.0-28.4) for treatments with >8 person-to-person treatment sessions (both intention-to-treat [ITT]; 6 months after the quit date [ 6 ]). Previous research in the hospital smoking cessation clinic where this study was conducted showed a 19% abstinence rate for comparable treatment in the target group of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease at the 12-month follow-up [ 7 ].

Blended Treatment Evolution

In the past decades, a variety of effective interventions for smoking cessation have become available [ 8 , 9 ], including, more recently, eHealth services such as web-based interventions [ 10 , 11 ] or mobile phone–based interventions [ 12 , 13 ]. At present, traditional face-to-face (F2F) interventions, on the one hand, and both web-based and mobile phone–based interventions, on the other hand, are increasingly being developed into blended treatments. This development is consistent with the idea that blended treatment combines the best of both worlds [ 14 , 15 ], as the strengths of one type of treatment should compensate for the weaknesses of the other [ 14 - 21 ]. For example, personal attention from a professional in F2F treatment could compensate for the lack of personal contact in web-based treatment. In turn, one of the main features of web-based treatment is the possibility of being available anytime and anywhere, which could bridge the interval between sessions in F2F treatment.

A systematic review of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) by Erbe et al [ 17 ] on blended F2F and web-based interventions suggests that compared with stand-alone F2F therapy, blended therapy may save clinician time and lead to lower dropout rates and higher abstinence rates in patients with substance abuse. The authors concluded that for common mental health disorders, blended interventions are feasible and can be more effective than no-treatment controls, but more RCTs on the effectiveness of blended treatments compared with nonblended treatments are necessary.

Although promising, evidence available for blended deaddiction treatment is still emerging, addressing abuse of substances such as alcohol [ 22 ], cocaine, marijuana [ 23 ], or opioids [ 24 ]. For smoking cessation, we only found studies on the promising adjunctive use of smartphone apps with F2F contact [ 25 - 27 ]. To the best of our knowledge, there is no published research on the effectiveness of blended smoking cessation treatments (BSCTs) compared with F2F treatments, where in the blended treatment, the web-based components are not an adjunct but a substitute for specific F2F treatment components. Therefore, in this study, we present the results of an RCT comparing a blended 50% F2F and 50% web-based smoking cessation treatment with a traditional F2F treatment that was similar in content and intensity. The primary objective was to determine if a BSCT resulted in noninferior abstinence rates compared with an F2F treatment with identical ingredients. The rationale for choosing a noninferiority design was that we expected secondary benefits for the BSCT, such as lower costs, lower dropouts, and higher patient satisfaction, even if the BSCT only led to comparable abstinence rates.

This study reports the results of an unblinded 2-arm, parallel group, noninferiority RCT with 1:1 allocation using stratified randomization (nicotine dependency, internet skills, and quitting strategy).

The study was conducted at the outpatient smoking cessation clinic (Dutch: Stoppen met Roken Poli ) of the Medical Spectrum Twente Hospital in Enschede, the Netherlands. Enschede is a municipality and city in the east of the Netherlands with a population of 150,000 inhabitants. The estimated daily smoking prevalence in Enschede was 17.2% in 2017, which is approximately the same as the average (17.4%) in the Netherlands, which is one of the countries with the least number of smokers in Europe [ 28 ].

Trial Registration

The trial was registered in the Netherlands Trial Register on March 24, 2015 (Acronym: LiveSmokefree-Study; Title: Blended Smoking Cessation Treatment; new ID: NL5975; old ID: NTR5113), and a detailed protocol has been published previously [ 29 ].

Participants

We recruited participants between March 2015 and March 2019. The participants were self-referred to the treatment or were referred to the clinic by their general practitioner or hospital physician and were called by members of the research department to check for eligibility. Eligible participants were current daily smokers (eg, at least 1 cigarette, cigar, pipe, or e-cigarette per day [ 30 ]), those who were aged ≥18 years, those who had access to the internet (eg, email and websites), and those who were able to read and write Dutch. Eligible patients completed a questionnaire at the beginning of the study before being randomized.

Ethical Considerations

Consistent with the Dutch Medical Research Ethics Committee guidelines, this study was approved by the accredited Medical Research Ethics Committee Twente (P14-37/NL50944.044.14) and subsequently by the Board of Directors of Medisch Spectrum Twente Hospital. Before initiation, the trial was registered and a detailed protocol has been published previously [ 29 ].

A patient information letter outlining the burden of participation was distributed to all patients, and eligible patients attended an intake interview and signed a consent form.

We processed participants’ personal data in accordance with the Dutch Personal Data Protection Act. The data were collected in 2 ways as follows:

  • The data of the personal contacts were recorded on data collection forms and collected centrally at Medisch Spectrum Twente Hospital. The data manager of the study recorded all collected data in an Access 2007 (Microsoft Corp) database.
  • Most data were collected by Tactus Addiction Treatment, a regional addiction care organization with expertise in web-based treatment, using web-based questionnaires offered to both treatment groups.

Individual patients and caregivers had a log-in with a username and password secured by the Secure Sockets Layer. All data transferred between the patient’s PC and the application were encrypted and sent using the https protocol. All data were encrypted and stored on servers in secure data centers in the Netherlands. To further ensure data security, daily backups of the server were performed.

The participants did not receive any compensation for their participation in the study.

Interventions

The study interventions to be compared were a blended F2F treatment and web-based BSCT and an F2F treatment. Except for the differences in the mode of delivery (ie, F2F mode and web mode), both treatments had the same features as follows:

  • High-intensity treatment that comprised 10 sessions (20-minute contact time for each session, except for the first session, which lasts 50 minutes) and supportive pharmacotherapy, if needed, within a 6-month period with an expected quit date after about 3 months
  • Delivered by health care professionals in an outpatient cessation clinic
  • Concordant with the Dutch guidelines for tobacco addiction [ 31 ], fulfilling the requirements of the Dutch care module for smoking cessation [ 32 ]
  • Executed by counselors registered in the Dutch quality register of qualified smoking cessation counselors
  • Supporting 3 quitting strategies that patients could choose at the start of the treatment: (1) stop at once, (2) change gradually by increasing the number of daily activities that are performed smoke free, or (3) decrease smoking at regular intervals (eg, scheduled smoking reduction by 100%->75% and 75%->50%). The chosen quitting strategy did not generally influence the course of the treatment. The order, pace, duration, and intensity were the same for all strategies.

Both BSCT and F2F treatment covered 52 behavior change techniques (using behavior change technique taxonomy v1 of 93 hierarchically clustered techniques by Michie et al [ 33 ]) as shown in Table 1 .

a BSCT: blended smoking cessation treatment.

b F2F: face-to-face.

F2F treatment consisted of 10 F2F sessions delivered at an outpatient smoking cessation clinic. BSCT consisted of 5 F2F sessions at the outpatient clinic and 5 web-based sessions delivered via the web-based treatment platform Roken De Baas (which translates loosely as “in control of smoking”). During the RCT, the software had to be revised once, as the European General Data Protection Regulation became enforceable from May 25, 2018, which changed the appearance and handling but not the content of the interventions.

Both F2F treatment and BSCT consisted of counselor-dependent and counselor-independent components. The counselor-dependent web-based components of BSCT were interactive and relied on asynchronous communication (eg, email and SMS text messaging) between the counselor and patient. The counselor-independent components such as psychoeducational content or the smoking diary were used by the patients on their own and at their own time. In F2F treatment, these components were provided in a paper manual that clients took home. In BSCT, these components were accessible over the web. As such, both treatments were equivalent in terms of content and intensity. However, an additional benefit of BSCT was that the content of previous counselor-dependent components remained accessible as email and SMS text messaging correspondence saved on the web.

The characteristic feature of BSCT is an equal balance between F2F and web-based sessions, and the focus of the treatment was not supposed to be on the F2F mode or the web mode; in addition, there was a constantly alternating and interacting use of the F2F mode and web mode. Table 2 presents the order, timing, main features, duration, and modes of delivery of the treatment sessions for F2F treatment and BSCT. Although an even distribution was planned for BSCT with regard to the number of sessions, there was an uneven distribution for the duration of treatment because the first session (50 minutes of F2F mode) was longer than the remaining sessions (20 minutes of F2F mode or 20 minutes of web mode); therefore, BSCT patients spent 130 minutes in the F2F mode and 100 minutes in the web mode.

a F2F: face-to-face.

b BSCT: blended smoking cessation treatment.

c F2F mode: F2F sessions of BSCT.

d Web mode: web-based sessions of BSCT.

e CO: carbon monoxide.

f Cotinine measurement was only performed in patients who reported quitting smoking either in the 3-month follow-up questionnaire or during treatment to the counselor.

More information about both treatments can be found in the study protocol of the RCT [ 29 ] and in the description of the user experiences of BSCT [ 21 ]. The treatment fidelity of the counselors was not recorded. The adherence to the treatments was described elsewhere [ 34 , 35 ]; but, in brief, levels of adherence were comparable for BSCT and F2F treatment sessions. To provide an impression of the look and feel of the web interventions of BSCT, Multimedia Appendix 1 displays screenshots of the web-based sessions of BSCT.

For the primary objective (ie, effectiveness) of the analysis, the primary outcome for the ITT analysis of the treatments’ effectiveness in smoking cessation was the proportions of biochemically (ie, cotinine) validated point prevalence abstinence from all combustible tobacco products (eg, cigarettes, bags, cigars, and pipes) at 3 and 15 months after the start of the treatment. Additional outcomes were the proportions of carbon monoxide (CO)–validated point prevalence abstinence; self-reported point prevalence abstinence; and self-reported continuous abstinence at 3 (ie, shortly after the expected quit date), 6 (ie, end of treatment), and 9 and 15 (follow-up measurements) months. Applying the noninferiority margin justified in our protocol paper [ 29 ], BSCT was considered as noninferior if it resulted in abstinence rates that were <5% points lower than those of F2F treatment [ 29 ].

Measurements

Effectiveness.

Cotinine-validated and CO-validated abstinence measurements were used to measure biochemically validated point prevalence abstinence rates [ 36 - 38 ].

Cotinine measurement was performed at approximately the 3-month and 15-month follow-up (ie, shortly after the expected quit day, week 14; refer to Table 2 ) and at the 15-month follow-up only in patients who reported quitting either during the treatment to the counselor or in the 3-month or 15-month follow-up questionnaire. A 0.5 mL to 1 mL salivary sample was collected using a Salivette (Sarstedt AG and Co). Under supervision, patients chew on a cotton swab for 1 minute to stimulate the saliva flow rate. All saliva specimens were frozen until assayed and transported to the laboratory for the determination of cotinine levels using a gas chromatography technique. Abstinence was defined as having a salivary cotinine level <20 ng/mL [ 39 ].

The CO level was measured in all patients (independent of reporting quitting) at 3 months, at the last F2F treatment session at the hospital (for the BSCT group, the last F2F treatment session was at 5 months after the start of the treatment [week 22], and for the F2F treatment group, at 6 months after start of the treatment [week 26]; refer to Table 2 ), and in patients who reported quitting at 15 months together with the cotinine level. A breath CO level of 5 ppm was taken as the cutoff value between smokers and nonsmokers (≥5 ppm in smokers and <5 ppm in nonsmokers [ 40 ]). Breath CO levels were monitored using a piCO Smokerlyzer (Bedfont Instruments), a portable CO monitor.

Furthermore, self-reported point prevalence abstinence and self-reported continuous abstinence rates were measured at 3, 6, 9, and 15 months after treatment initiation. The measurement tool was a standardized questionnaire for Dutch tobacco research [ 30 ], which patients in both BSCT and F2F treatment completed over the web. Self-reported point prevalence abstinence rate was assessed by asking patients whether they had smoked ≥1 cigarette (eg, bags, cigars, and pipe) in the last 7 days, and the self-reported continuous abstinence rate was assessed by asking whether they had smoked since the current stop.

For each measurement during and after treatment, the participants were prompted twice via email and, in the absence of measurements, were additionally notified twice via telephone. If no measurement was available after 2 emails and 2 telephone calls, the participants were classified as lost to follow-up for the respective measurement and notified again for the next measurement.

Sample Size

For the RCT, we calculated the abstinence rates for 344 participants, assuming a long-term abstinence rate of 10% for those receiving F2F treatment [ 6 , 7 , 41 ] and—based on its expected benefits—15% for those receiving BSCT. If BSCT would lead to an abstinence rate not <5%, it would be considered as noninferior compared with F2F treatment. Therefore, 172 patients per group with a power of 80% and a Cronbach α of .025 were needed for this RCT (calculated using Power Analysis & Sample Size [NCSS Statistical Software]).

Randomization

We randomly allocated patients to either BSCT or F2F treatment using computerized randomization (Qminim Online Minimization). Randomization was performed at the individual level (allocation ratio 1:1). The minimization was stratified according to (1) the level of internet skills [ 42 ], (2) the level of nicotine dependence [ 30 ], and (3) the quitting strategy favored by the patient (eg, stop at once, gradual change, and scheduled reduced smoking; for details refer to the description in the Interventions section). The data used for minimization were collected using the baseline questionnaire, which was completed over the web by the patient after providing consent.

Owing to the nature of the treatment conditions, it was self-evidently impossible to blind the staff and patients involved in the study.

Statistical Methods

For both the BSCT group and the F2F treatment group, the patients’ demographic, smoking-related, and health-related characteristics at baseline were reported as means with SD for normally distributed continuous variables and as medians with IQR for nonnormally distributed continuous variables. Categorical variables were reported as numbers with corresponding percentages. To identify between-group differences, an independent 1-sided (1-tailed) t test or Mann-Whitney U test was performed as appropriate for continuous variables, and Pearson chi-square or Fisher exact test was performed for categorical variables.

As this was an ITT analysis, participants with missing data on smoking status were considered as smokers. The absolute and proportional abstinence rates in the treatment group were reported.

The noninferiority was analyzed by calculating the difference and the 95% CI of the observed difference in the abstinence rates and by comparing that to the previously defined noninferiority margin of 5% points [ 29 ]. In addition, the noninferiority analysis is illustrated in a forest chart.

To be able to compare the results of this study with those of other studies conducted using a more traditional RCT design, additional repeated measures analyses were conducted using generalized estimating equation to test for group, time, and group×time differences in abstinence rates.

All analyses were performed using the SPSS software (version 26.0; IBM Corp), except for the calculation of the CIs of the difference between abstinence rates, for which we used the web tool by VassarStats [ 43 ] for “The Confidence Interval For The Difference Between Two Independent Proportions.”

Participant Flow

Figure 1 shows the flow of participants throughout the study. A total of 344 patients were eligible for the study, provided written consent, and were randomized (smoking cessation treatment: BSCT, n=177; F2F treatment, n=177). Of 177 patients each in both groups, 167 (94.3%) patients of the BSCT group and all 177 (100%) of the F2F treatment group started treatment (ie, they received at least 1 session). Before the start of treatment, 151 (85.3%) of the 177 patients in the BSCT group and 175 (98.8%) of the 177 patients in the F2F treatment group completed the baseline questionnaire. Three months after starting treatment (ie, shortly after the expected quit date), of the 177 patients in the BSCT group, 14 (7.9%) who self-reported quitting were available for cotinine measurement, 68 (38.4%) were available for CO measurement, and 26 (14.6%) completed the follow-up questionnaire. Of the 177 patients in the F2F treatment group, 47 (26.5%) who reported quitting were available for cotinine measurement, 77 (43.5%) were available for CO measurement, and 47 (26.5%) completed the 3-month follow-up questionnaire. Of 177 patients in the BSCT group, 53 (29.9%) were available for the 5-month CO measurement and 18 (10.1%) completed the 6-month follow-up questionnaire. Of 177 patients in the F2F treatment group, 61 (34.4%) were available for the 6-month CO measurement and 53 (29.9%) completed the 6-month follow-up questionnaire. The 9-month follow-up questionnaire was completed by 20 (11.2%) patients of the BSCT group and 42 (23.7%) patients of the F2F treatment group. After 15 months of starting treatment, 9 (5.1%) of the 177 patients in the BSCT group who self-reported quitting were available for cotinine level measurement. A total of 16 (9%) patients in the BSCT group were available for CO level measurement and 7 (4%) completed the follow-up questionnaire. Of 177 patients in the F2F treatment group, 12 (6.8%) patients who reported quitting were available for cotinine level measurement, 15 (8.5%) were available for CO level measurement, and 31 (17.5%) completed the 15-month follow-up questionnaire.

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Baseline Characteristics

Table 3 shows that the baseline characteristics, including demographic, smoking-related, and health-related characteristics, were comparable between the participants in both groups.

c VET: vocational education and training.

d Internet skills: range 10-60; higher numbers indicate better skills.

e Nicotine dependency (Fagerström): range 0-10; higher numbers indicate higher nicotine dependency.

f Negative attitude toward quitting: range −12 to 0; lower numbers indicate a more negative attitude toward quitting smoking.

g Positive attitude toward quitting: range 0-12; higher numbers indicate a more positive attitude toward quitting smoking.

h Self-efficacy: range −12 to 12; higher numbers indicate higher self-efficacy related to smoking cessation.

i Readiness to quit: range 0-4; higher numbers indicate higher readiness to quit.

j Social support: range 0-5; higher numbers indicate more social support in smoking cessation.

k Social modeling: range 0-8; higher numbers indicate more smokers in the social environment.

l Use of alcohol: range 0-4; 0=Never, 1=1 time per month, 2=2-4 times per month, 3=2-3 times per week, and 4=≥4 times per week.

m Health-related complaints: range 0-40; higher numbers indicate poorer health status.

n MAP HSS: Maudsley Addiction Profile Health Symptoms Scale.

o Smoking-related complaints: range 0-64; higher numbers indicate more smoking-related complaints.

p Health- and smoking-related complaints: range 0-104; higher numbers indicate poorer health status and more smoking-related complaints.

q Depression, anxiety and stress: range 0-42; higher numbers indicate a higher level of depression, anxiety and stress.

r DASS: sum score of depression, anxiety and stress (range 0-126; higher numbers indicate a more negative emotional status).

s EQ-5D-3L: societal-based quantification of the patients’ health status (range 0-1; higher numbers indicate better health status).

t EQ VAS: visual analog scale for quality of life (range 0-100, higher numbers indicate better state of health).

Table 4 shows the results of effectiveness measurements at 3, 5 or 6, 9, and 15 months after the start of treatment. The cotinine-validated point prevalence abstinence shortly after the expected stop day (ie, 3 months after the treatment initiation) showed a significantly lower and inferior abstinence rate in the BSCT group (4.8%) than in the F2F treatment group (17.5%; difference of 12.7, 95% CI 6.2-19.4; P <.001). The differences found in the 15-month cotinine level measurement (difference of 1.5, 95% CI −3.5 to 6.4) and in all CO level measurements at 3 months (difference of 2.5, 95% CI −6.9 to 11.8), 5 or 6 months (difference 3.7, 95% CI −4.0 to 11.4), and 15 months (difference 0.7, 95% CI −4.9 to 6.7) were not substantial and inconclusive in terms of inferiority.

c Data not available.

d CO: carbon monoxide.

e Answer “no” to the questionnaire question “Have you smoked one or more cigarettes (bags, cigars, pipe) in the last 7 days?”

f Answer “no” to the questionnaire question “Have you smoked since the stop?”

Furthermore, we observed significantly lower and inferior abstinence rates in the BSCT group for self-reported point prevalence abstinence at 5 or 6 months (BSCT 7.8% vs F2F treatment 27.1%; difference 19.3, 95% CI 11.5-27.0; P <.001), for self-reported point prevalence abstinence at 15 months (BSCT 3% vs F2F treatment 14.7%; difference 11.7, 95% CI 5.8-17.9; P <.001), and for self-reported continuous abstinence at 5 or 6 months (BSCT 6% vs F2F treatment 19.8%; difference 13.8, 95% CI 6.8-20.8; P <.001). Significantly lower—but in terms of inferiority, inconclusive—abstinence rates in the BSCT group were found for self-reported point prevalence abstinence at 9 months (BSCT 11.4% vs F2F treatment 22%; difference 10.7, 95% CI 2.8-18.4; P =.009) and for self-reported continuous abstinence at 15 months (BSCT 1.8% vs F2F treatment 11.3%; difference 9.5, 95% CI 4.4-15.1; P <.001).

Figure 2 presents the 95% CIs of the differences between BSCT and F2F treatment groups for all abstinence outcome measures by applying the 5% points noninferiority margin. The forest plot illustrates the inferiority of BSCT with cotinine-validated point prevalence abstinence at 3 months, self-reported point prevalence abstinence at 6 and 15 months, and self-reported continuous abstinence at 6 months. For the remaining outcomes, the forest plot shows inconclusive results.

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The generalized estimating equation analysis showed significant differences ( P <.05) between both the groups with time and the group×time interaction for cotinine-validated point prevalence abstinence, self-reported point prevalence abstinence, and self-reported continuous abstinence rates. For the CO-validated point prevalence abstinence, a significant difference was found with time, but neither was there a difference between the groups nor a time×group interaction.

Principal Findings

This paper presents the results of an RCT comparing the effectiveness of a blended 50% F2F treatment and 50% web-based BSCT to F2F-only treatment with similar ingredients and intensity. Contrary to our expectations, the abstinence rates of the BSCT group were lower than those of the F2F group. For the primary outcome (ie, cotinine-validated point prevalence abstinence rate), applying the 5%-point noninferiority margin indicated inferiority of BSCT at 3 months, whereas the outcome at 15 months was inconclusive. Both results should be considered with caution as the statistical power to detect differences was limited owing to nonresponse. Furthermore, BSCT was found to be inferior in 3 of the secondary outcomes (ie, self-reported point prevalence abstinence rate, self-reported continuous abstinence rate at 6 months, and self-reported point prevalence abstinence rate at 15 months), whereas the remaining outcomes were inconclusive. Although most outcomes from the repeated measures analyses showed significantly lower abstinence rates for the blended treatment, all remaining outcomes were nonsignificant, further corroborating the inferiority of BSCT against F2F treatment.

Given that our results suggest that it is more likely that BSCT is inferior to F2F treatment, our study is not consistent with the higher abstinence rates reported in the literature [ 17 ] for blended treatments compared with F2F treatment. Explanations for this likely inferiority of BSCT require further study. As the patients’ demographic, smoking-related, and health-related characteristics were comparable in both treatment groups, these factors did not seem to play a role in this context. This also applies to adherence; as we found in previous analyses [ 35 ], adherence was comparable for both the groups. However, we know from qualitative analyses conducted as part of this RCT [ 21 ] that participants found the web-based components of BSCT to be rather unmotivating and not enjoyable, which may have resulted in BSCT patients making less use of the web-based components both during and after the treatment, and thus, may be a factor in the lower abstinence rates. The experience of patients in the BSCT suggests that the highly protocolized, equally balanced mix for blended treatment chosen in this study, with a fixed sequence of alternating F2F and web-based sessions, was too restrictive for blended treatment in practice [ 35 ], thus limiting tailoring to individual patient needs. Which intervention components should be offered when and in what form to achieve optimal treatment outcomes requires further investigation.

Furthermore, even if this cannot be supported by systematic observations and analyses, we believe that provider-related factors at the microlevel (eg, the treatment fidelity of counselors and therapist drift) and at the mesolevel (eg, the organization’s preexisting knowledge, routines, and leadership) should be considered more closely. A relevant factor could be that, in the development of BSCT, half of the counseling sessions of the F2F treatment established in the outpatient smoking cessation clinic were replaced by web-based tools from a web platform unfamiliar to the clinic and counselors. Therefore, counselors had half of their F2F intervention replaced and had to integrate the new web-based components into a new blended workflow. The preexisting routine and familiarity with the F2F treatment among counselors might have disadvantaged the quality of execution of the blended treatment. The normalization process theory [ 44 ] could provide valuable perspectives in this context. It posits that the unclear definition of BSCT’s meaningfulness (coherence) for counselors may have diminished their motivation and engagement (cognitive participation). Limited collective agency in BSCT’s implementation, owing to rigid protocols and insufficient reflective monitoring, may have further impeded its establishment in clinical practice. Understanding these barriers through targeted investigations could enhance the integration and efficacy of the BSCT.

Although not the focus of this analysis, we noticed that both treatments mostly showed lower abstinence rates than those reported in the literature for comparable treatments (ie, point prevalence abstinence rates of 28.4% for treatments with a total contact time of 91 to 300 minutes 6 months after the quit date [ 6 ]). At 9 months (ie, 6 months after the quit date), for F2F treatment, we found a self-reported point prevalence abstinence rate of 22% and a self-reported continuous abstinence rate of 13%. For BSCT, this rate was even lower with 11.4% for self-reported point prevalence abstinence and 7.8% for self-reported continuous abstinence. These relatively low abstinence rates could be because of the population characteristics (ie, patients in an outpatient smoking cessation clinic in a hospital context). Further analysis should investigate whether the sample differs from the general population in terms of known effectiveness predictors [ 45 ], such as, in this context, age, socioeconomic status, alcohol and drug use, health status, nicotine dependence, motivation to quit, or family status. However, a previous study by Christenhusz [ 7 ] in the same clinic with a comparable treatment for the specific target group of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease showed much higher cotinine-validated abstinence rates (19%) compared with F2F treatment (5.7%) and BSCT (4.2%) at the 12-month follow-up. A more plausible explanation for this is the high dropout rate and missing data in this study. As we applied the common penalized imputation procedure (assuming missing=smoking [ 46 , 47 ]) to deal with missing data in our analyses, imputed quit rates will decrease proportionally to dropout rates.

A final point to consider is that toward the end of the RCT, the software of the web platform had to be updated because of legal changes, which temporarily caused accessibility problems. However, as only a few patients were affected by this and only toward the end of the RCT, these had no relevant influence on the results of this study.

Although blended treatment appears promising and reflects today’s digitalization of the lifestyle of patients and health care professionals [ 14 , 15 ], not every realization of blended treatment is automatically an improvement. This also underscores the need to answer the question Greenhalgh et al [ 48 ] raised earlier: “What explains the success of a blended treatment in one context and the failure of a comparable blended treatment in another context?” The likely inferiority of BSCT in this study indicates that the current realization of BSCT will have to be reconsidered, which may involve aspects such as the optimal balance and mix of F2F and web-based components or the use of synchronous versus asynchronous counseling within web-based components. Such a redesign process can be supported by an analysis using the normalization process theory [ 44 ] and guided by an eHealth development model such as the Center for eHealth Research Road map [ 49 ]; the nonadoption, abandonment, scale-up, spread, and sustainability framework [ 48 ]; or more practically by the “Fit for Blended Care” instrument [ 15 ], which is intended to support therapists and patients in deciding whether and how blended care can be established.

For the generalization of the results, it should be noted that this analysis referred to a hospital context and a blended treatment with a strict 50:50 ratio of web-based and F2F interventions. For example, hospital patients could be expected to have a higher disease burden and, possibly, owing to age, a lower eHealth literacy than the general population. The question arises whether the results would have been different in a healthier, younger population. In addition, as mentioned above, a fixed 50:50 ratio of web-based and F2F interventions was defined for BSCT, which did not consider the individual needs of patients or counselors. A blended treatment that is better tailored to the needs, characteristics, and skills of both the patients and the counselors could have led to better results [ 15 ]. We know from an earlier study by Siemer et al [ 21 ] that patients would have preferred to use a smartphone app instead of a web platform, for example, or that they would have liked to be free to choose the ratio and sequence of F2F and web-based interventions.

Limitations

A major limitation of this study was the high dropout rate at several follow-up time points, resulting in many missing values for both self-reported and biochemical measures, which had a major impact on the ITT analysis. According to the ITT procedure, all missing values for the outcomes were coded as smoking. As a result, both the biochemically validated outcomes and the self-reported outcomes of this study are likely to be overly conservative, which largely explains the relatively low abstinence rates found in both study groups compared with the existing literature.

Furthermore, because of the high dropout rate, we conducted an analysis of the factors associated with dropout. We identified 2 main predictors of dropout: having a smoking partner at baseline and lower mental health scores as indicated by the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale [ 50 ]. Both predictors are known to be associated with poorer treatment outcomes [ 51 ]. This finding suggests that neither of the interventions used in this study sufficiently reduced the barriers to successful intervention completion. Such nonrandom patterns of dropout pose a threat to the external validity of our findings as they suggest that our sample may not be fully representative of the wider population. However, it is notable that these attrition factors alone are unlikely to fully explain the relatively low quit rates observed in this trial compared with other similarly intensive interventions [ 7 ] as similar reasons for dropout are likely to occur in any smoking cessation trial sample. Nevertheless, the underrepresentation of participants with these risk factors at later follow-ups may have led to an overestimation of the effectiveness of our interventions, although it remains difficult to assess whether this occurred to a greater extent in this study than in other smoking cessation trials.

However, the most critical aspect is whether these predictors of attrition varied between the 2 treatment conditions [ 52 ]. Such differential attrition could compromise the internal validity of our findings, particularly in the noninferiority test comparing blended treatment with F2F treatment delivery. Owing to low cell counts of the two above-mentioned dropout predictors, a detailed analysis to examine the interaction effects of attrition predictors by treatment condition was not feasible. In addition, there were no consistent differences in the attrition rates between the study groups at any follow-up time points.

Another limitation to consider is the risk of bias in patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs), such as social desirability or recall bias, particularly given that the study relies in part on self-reported smoking cessation for an extended period of 15 months. The participants’ ability to accurately recall their smoking behavior could be impaired, especially in the context of continuous abstinence, which could bias the study results. In general, the lower quit rates in our study compared with the existing literature argue against a significant self-report bias, as PROMs tend to overestimate quit rates compared with biochemical validation. Furthermore, biased PROMs will only have affected the internal validity of this study if they occur differently in the 2 study groups. We have no indications of this, but we lack data to verify this statistically. Because the determination of noninferiority is ultimately based on applying the 5% margin, it can also be considered a weakness that this 5% margin is based only on our considerations, as stated in the protocol paper of this study [ 29 ]. However, a slightly higher or lower margin would have led to slight changes in the results but not fundamental changes in the conclusions.

In addition to the cotinine measurements, this study collected CO measurements at the last 3 follow-up points. However, the second of these CO measurements showed a 4-week difference between the groups: 5 months after baseline for the blended treatment group and 6 months for the F2F group. Assuming that relapse rates would be expected to increase with time, this difference should have favored the effectiveness of the blended treatment. However, our results at this time point show the opposite, further supporting our claim of inferiority of the blended treatment compared with the F2F treatment.

Another limitation of this study is that our data, which were designed to compare the 2 approaches of blended and F2F treatment, did not allow analyses at the level of treatment components within the 2 delivery modes. Nevertheless, studies comparing different blended protocols are warranted to enable the design of improved BSCT in the future.

A final limitation of this study is that, as is often the case in clinical studies [ 53 ], we have not recorded the treatment fidelity and therefore deviations from the treatment protocol favoring one of both modes of delivery may have biased our findings. Although we cannot rely on systematic observations, we have some reason to believe that the implementation and adoption of the innovative BSCT may have had a negative impact on the effectiveness of the BSCT compared with the usual F2F treatment. However, based on our data on adherence from previous papers [ 34 , 35 ] and the findings on satisfaction (not reported in this study), we found no indication of a fidelity issue.

Conclusions

In this analysis of an RCT comparing a BSCT with a comparable F2F treatment, we found predominant results indicating inferiority of the blended mode compared with the traditional F2F mode, exceeding a 5% margin in abstinence rate. This could not be explained by lower adherence. Further research is required on the critical factors involved in the design of blended interventions.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the directors, the staff of both Medisch Spectrum Twente Hospital and Tactus Addiction Treatment, and the patients of the outpatient smoking cessation clinic of the Medical Spectrum Twente Hospital.

During the revision process, the authors assessed the efficacy of artificial intelligence (AI) tools such as ChatGPT 4.0 (OpenAI) [ 54 ], DeepL Translator (DeepL SE) [ 55 ], and DeepL Write (DeepL SE) [ 56 ] in enhancing language use. The objective of the authors was to determine whether this approach could optimize the academic writing quality for nonnative English speakers. Where the AI did not alter the content, the authors refined the language by altering the phrasing based on AI suggestions.

Data Availability

The data underlying this paper are available in Data Archiving and Networked Services [ 57 ].

Authors' Contributions

LS, MGP, MGJB-K, MEP, and SBA initiated collaboration with the data provider, designed the study, and wrote the study protocol. LS conducted the literature search, monitored data collection, drafted the paper, and is the guarantor of the paper. LS, MGP, and MGJB-K conducted the trial. LS and MGJB-K wrote the statistical analysis plan. LS and MGP designed the data collection tools. LS, MGJB-K, and MEP analyzed the data. LS, MGP, MGJB-K, MEP, and SBA revised the draft paper.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

Screenshots of web sessions of the blended smoking cessation treatment.

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Abbreviations

Edited by A Mavragani; submitted 06.03.23; peer-reviewed by L Harst, Z Ehtesham; comments to author 24.07.23; revised version received 04.11.23; accepted 29.12.23; published 20.02.24.

©Lutz Siemer, Marcel E Pieterse, Somaya Ben Allouch, Marloes G Postel, Marjolein G J Brusse-Keizer. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 20.02.2024.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://www.jmir.org/, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.

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    JAN 2, 2024 How To Cite a Research Paper in 2024: Citation Styles Guide by Imed Bouchrika, Phd Co-Founder and Chief Data Scientist Share If you are looking for the best advice on how to write a research paper, the first thing you would find is to cite your sources. In academic research, it is standardized by many institutions.

  6. How to Write a Bibliography (MLA, APA Examples)

    An annotated bibliography should include a reference list of any sources you use in writing a research paper. Any printed sources from which you use a text citation, including books, websites, newspaper articles, journal articles, academic writing, online sources (such as PDFs), and magazines should be included in a reference list.

  7. How to Write an APA Format Bibliography

    An APA format bibliography is an alphabetical listing of all sources that might be used to write an academic paper, essay, article, or research paper—particularly work that is covering psychology or psychology-related topics. APA format is the official style of the American Psychological Association (APA).

  8. APA Formatting and Citation (7th Ed.)

    Throughout your paper, you need to apply the following APA format guidelines: Set page margins to 1 inch on all sides. Double-space all text, including headings. Indent the first line of every paragraph 0.5 inches. Use an accessible font (e.g., Times New Roman 12pt., Arial 11pt., or Georgia 11pt.).

  9. How to Write a Bibliography in APA and MLA styles With Examples

    A bibliography is a listing of the books, magazines, and Internet sources that you use in designing, carrying out, and understanding your science fair project. Your bibliography should include a minimum of three written sources of information about your topic from books, encyclopedias, and periodicals.

  10. Research Paper Format

    Formatting an APA paper. The main guidelines for formatting a paper in APA Style are as follows: Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman or 11 pt Arial. Set 1 inch page margins. Apply double line spacing. If submitting for publication, insert a APA running head on every page. Indent every new paragraph ½ inch.

  11. How to Write a Research Paper: Annotated Bibliography

    Annotated bibliographies can be part of a larger research project, or can be a stand-alone report in itself. Annotation versus abstracts An abstract is a paragraph at the beginning of the paper that discusses the main point of the original work. They typically do not include evaluation comments. Annotations can either be descriptive or evaluative.

  12. Citations, References and Bibliography in Research Papers [Beginner's

    A bibliography in research paper is a list of sources that appears at the end of a research paper or an article, and contains information that may or may not be directly mentioned in the research paper.

  13. How to Cite Sources

    At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays, research papers, and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises). Add a citation whenever you quote, paraphrase, or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.

  14. Research and Citation Resources

    This section contains resources on in-text citation and the Works Cited page, as well as MLA sample papers, slide presentations, and the MLA classroom poster Chicago Manual of Style This section contains information on the Chicago Manual of Style method of document formatting and citation.

  15. Annotated Bibliographies

    A good annotated bibliography: encourages you to think critically about the content of the works you are using, their place within a field of study, and their relation to your own research and ideas. proves you have read and understand your sources. establishes your work as a valid source and you as a competent researcher.

  16. How to Write a Bibliography for a Research Paper: Guidelines

    Step 1. Develop an initial reference page. While accumulating data for research papers, establishing an initial bibliography can be advantageous. It simplifies the final stages of your work and aids in the organization of your ideas. When composing an initial draft, ensure to compile details: Author (s) and editor (s);

  17. Creating an MLA Bibliography

    The difference between the two is that while a bibliography refers to any source you consulted to write your research paper, a Works Cited page only includes full citations of the sources you quoted or paraphrased within your paper.

  18. How to Cite Research Paper

    Research paper: In-text citation: Use superscript numbers to cite sources in the text, e.g., "Previous research has shown that^1,2,3…". Reference list citation: Format: Author (s). Title of paper. In: Editor (s). Title of the conference proceedings. Place of publication: Publisher; Year of publication. Page range.

  19. What Is an Annotated Bibliography?

    Published on March 9, 2021 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on August 23, 2022. An annotated bibliography is a list of source references that includes a short descriptive text (an annotation) for each source. It may be assigned as part of the research process for a paper, or as an individual assignment to gather and read relevant sources on a topic.

  20. Writing a Bibliography

    A bibliography is a detailed list of all the sources consulted and cited in a research paper or project. The bibliography structure always includes citing the author's name, the title of...

  21. Guide & Samples for Writing a Bibliography of a Research Paper

    Search for:Search How to Write a Bibliography for a Research Paper: Guide & Samples Posted on January 12, 2022January 13, 2022 A bibliography is undoubtedly one of the most essential parts of every research paper. A research paper without a bibliography equals poorly conducted research.

  22. How to Write a Bibliography

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  24. Free Citation Generator

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    Some of the citing publications didn't even reference the researcher's work in the main text of the article; the citation had simply been added to the reference list at the end. The team also noticed that one of the authors had received many citations from papers hosted by an account on Research Gate, a social networking site for scientists.