Middle Childhood (6-8 years of age)

child in soccer uniform

Developmental Milestones

Middle childhood brings many changes in a child’s life. By this time, children can dress themselves, catch a ball more easily using only their hands, and tie their shoes. Having independence from family becomes more important now. Events such as starting school bring children this age into regular contact with the larger world. Friendships become more and more important. Physical, social, and mental skills develop quickly at this time. This is a critical time for children to develop confidence in all areas of life, such as through friends, schoolwork, and sports.

Here is some information on how children develop during middle childhood:

Emotional/Social Changes

Children in this age group might:

  • Show more independence from parents and family.
  • Start to think about the future.
  • Understand more about his or her place in the world.
  • Pay more attention to friendships and teamwork.
  • Want to be liked and accepted by friends.

Thinking and Learning

  • Show rapid development of mental skills.
  • Learn better ways to describe experiences and talk about thoughts and feelings.
  • Have less focus on one’s self and more concern for others.

Positive Parenting Tips

Following are some things you, as a parent, can do to help your child during this time:

  • Show affection for your child. Recognize her accomplishments.
  • Help your child develop a sense of responsibility—ask him to help with household tasks, such as setting the table.
  • Talk with your child about school, friends, and things she looks forward to in the future.
  • Talk with your child about respecting others. Encourage him to help people in need.
  • Help your child set her own achievable goals—she’ll learn to take pride in herself and rely less on approval or reward from others.
  • Help your child learn patience by letting others go first or by finishing a task before going out to play. Encourage him to think about possible consequences before acting.
  • Make clear rules and stick to them, such as how long your child can watch TV or when she has to go to bed. Be clear about what behavior is okay and what is not okay.
  • Do fun things together as a family, such as playing games, reading, and going to events in your community.
  • Get involved with your child’s school. Meet the teachers and staff and get to understand their learning goals and how you and the school can work together to help your child do well.
  • Continue reading to your child. As your child learns to read, take turns reading to each other.
  • Use discipline to guide and protect your child, rather than punishment to make him feel bad about himself. Follow up any discussion about what not to do with a discussion of what to do instead.
  • Praise your child for good behavior. It’s best to focus praise more on what your child does (“you worked hard to figure this out”) than on traits she can’t change (“you are smart”).
  • Support your child in taking on new challenges. Encourage her to solve problems, such as a disagreement with another child, on her own.
  • Encourage your child to join school and community groups, such as a team sports, or to take advantage of volunteer opportunities.

Tip Sheet

Child Safety First

More physical ability and more independence can put children at risk for injuries from falls and other accidents. Motor vehicle crashes are the most common cause of death from unintentional injury among children this age.

  • Protect your child properly in the car. For detailed information, visit the American Academy of Pediatrics’ Car Seats: Information for Families external icon .
  • Teach your child to watch out for traffic and how to be safe when walking to school, riding a bike, and playing outside.
  • Make sure your child understands water safety, and always supervise her when she’s swimming or playing near water.
  • Supervise your child when he’s engaged in risky activities, such as climbing.
  • Talk with your child about how to ask for help when she needs it.
  • Keep potentially harmful household products, tools, equipment, and firearms out of your child’s reach.

Healthy Bodies

  • Parents can help make schools healthier. Work with your child’s school to limit access to foods and drinks with added sugar, solid fat, and salt that can be purchased outside the school lunch program.
  • Make sure your child has 1 hour or more of physical activity each day.
  • Keep television sets out of your child’s bedroom. Set limits for screen time for your child at home, school, or afterschool care and develop a media use plan for your family. external icon
  • Practice healthy eating habits and physical activity early. Encourage active play, and be a role model by eating healthy at family mealtimes and having an active lifestyle.
  • Make sure your child gets the recommended amount of sleep  each night: For school-age children 6-12 years, 9–12 hours per 24 hours (including naps)

For More Information

  • Infants and toddlers
  • Middle childhood
  • Adolescence

CDC’s “Learn the Signs. Act Early.” Campaign For more details on developmental milestones, warning signs of possible developmental delays, and information on how to help your child’s development, visit the “Learn the Signs. Act Early.” campaign website.

CDC’s Parent Information (Children 0―3 years) This site has information to help you learn how to give your child a healthy start in life.

CDC’s Essentials for Parenting Toddlers and Preschoolers Learn ways you can help build a safe, stable, and nurturing relationship with your child.

CDC’s Breastfeeding Information This site has answers to frequently asked questions about breastfeeding.

CDC’s Information on Infant and Toddler Nutrition Tips for Parents – Ideas to help children maintain a healthy weight.

CDC’s Protect the Ones You Love CDC’s Injury Center has information on how you can protect your child from drowning and other common causes of injury.

CDC’s Information on Vaccinations View the immunization schedule for infants and children and find out if your child’s vaccinations are up to date.

My Plate – Infants external icon The U.S. Department of Agriculture provides information on health and nutrition for 2 through 5 years of age.

My Plate – Toddlers external icon The U.S. Department of Agriculture provides information on health and nutrition for toddlers

HealthyChildren.org external icon AAP’s Healthy Children website provides information on feeding, nutrition, and fitness for all developmental stages from infancy to young adulthood.

Just in Time Parenting external icon (JITP) Quality, research-based information to families at the time it can be most useful.

Healthy Kids Healthy Future external icon You will find information on physical activity for young children and on ways to keep them moving.

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration external icon (NHTSA) NHTSA has information on safety recalls and safety tips for children riding in motor vehicles, walking, biking, playing outside, waiting at school bus stops, and more.

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. external icon (NICHD) Visit NICHD to learn how to reduce the risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) and about safe sleep environments.

World Health Organization information on infant nutrition external icon This site has information to promote proper feeding for infants and young children.

CDC’s Parent Information (Children 4−11 years) This site has information to help you guide your child in leading a healthier life.

CDC’s Healthy Weight Information . Tips for parents – Ideas to help children maintain a healthy weight.

CDC’s Youth Physical Activity Guidelines This site has information on how to help children be active and play.

My Plate- Preschoolers external icon The U.S. Department of Agriculture provides information on health and nutrition for preschoolers.

CDC’s Parent Information (Children 4 — 11 years) This site has information to help you guide your child in leading a healthier life.

CDC’s Youth Physical Activity Basics This site has information on how to help children be active and play.

CDC’s Kids Quest Kids Quest is a CDC website designed for students in fourth, fifth, and sixth grades, to get them to think about people with disabilities and some of the issues related to daily activities, health, and accessibility.

CDC’s BAM! Body and Mind CDC’s BAM! Body and Mind is a website designed for kids 9 through 13 years of age to give them the information they need to make healthy lifestyle choices. The site focuses on topics that kids told us are important to them—such as stress and physical fitness—using kid-friendly lingo, games, quizzes, and other interactive features.

My Plate – Kids external icon . The U.S. Department of Agriculture provides information on health and nutrition for children over 5 years of age.

HealthyChildren.org external icon AAP’s Healthy Children website provides information on feeding, nutrition, and fitness for all developmental stages from infancy to young adulthood. Visit this website to learn more about emotional problems external icon , learning disabilities external icon and other health and development concerns.

Let’s Move-Kids external icon Five simple steps for parents towards creating a healthy environment at home.

StopBullying.gov external icon StopBullying.gov provides information from various government agencies on how children, parents, educators and others in the community can prevent or stop bullying.

SAMHSA’s KnowBullying app external icon A free app for parents to help prevent bullying, created by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Agency (SAMHSA).

Teens Health external icon Visit this site for information on healthy eating and exercise external icon for children and teenagers, safety tips for your child at home external icon when you can’t be there, and other important health and safety topics.

CDC’s Adolescent and School Mental Health Learn how connection is key to good adolescent mental health.

CDC’s Parent Information (Teens 12— 19) This site has information to help you learn how to guide your teen to be safe and become a healthy and productive adult.

CDC’s Pregnancy Prevention for Teens . Tips and information especially for teens and designed with input from teens.

CDC’s BAM! Body and Mind CDC’s BAM! Body and Mind is a website designed for kids 9 through 13 years of age, to give them the information they need to make healthy lifestyle choices. The site focuses on topics that kids told us are important to them—such as stress and physical fitness—using kid-friendly lingo, games, quizzes, and other interactive features.

CDC’s Information on Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Youth Health Learn about the physical and mental health of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth

American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry external icon The American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry has many fact sheets for parents on child and adolescent health and development.

My Plate – Teen external icon The U.S. Department of Agriculture provides information on health and nutrition for teens.

National Institute of Mental Health external icon The National Institute of Mental Health has information on mental disorders affecting children and adolescents, including anxiety and depression.

StopBullying.gov external icon StopBullying.gov provides information from various government agencies on how children, parents, educators, and others in the community can prevent or stop bullying.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) external icon SAMHSA works to improve the quality and availability of substance abuse prevention, alcohol and drug addiction treatment, and mental health services.

Teens Health external icon Visit this site for information on healthy eating and exercise for children and teenagers.

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Havighurst’s Developmental Task Theory

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What are the most important tasks in your life right now? I’m not talking about little things like brushing your teeth or paying a bill. I’m talking about the biggest goals in your overall development. According to the Havighurst's Developmental Task Theory, your age plays a big role in this answer.

Who Was Robert J. Havighurst?

Havighurst was an American psychologist who developed his theory on Developmental Tasks between 1948 and 1953. His work came after the work of Sigmund Freud and Jean Piaget, but before Erik Erikson. He is also known for popularizing the phrase “teachable moments” in his 1952 book Human Development and Education.

In his book, he writes:

“A developmental task is a task which is learned at a specific point and which makes achievement of succeeding tasks possible. When the timing is right, the ability to learn a particular task will be possible. This is referred to as a 'teachable moment.' It is important to keep in mind that unless the time is right, learning will not occur. Hence, it is important to repeat important points whenever possible so that when a student's teachable moment occurs, s/he can benefit from the knowledge."

What Is Developmental Task Theory?

Havighurst’s Theory defined developmental stages and tasks pertaining to each stage. This mirrors the work of Piaget and Erikson, who also identified "stages" of development and what each child achieved at different ages. Within each stage is a list of tasks that the individual feels that they must complete.

What Are the Stages in Havighurst's Developmental Task Theory?

stages of Havighurst's Developmental Task Theory

The stages in Havighurst's Theory include:

  • Infancy and early childhood (0-6 years old)
  • Later childhood (6–13 years old)
  • Adolescence (13–18 years old)
  • Early Adulthood (19–30 years old)
  • Middle Age (30–60 years old)
  • Later maturity (60 years old and over)

 If the child completes the "correct" tasks in the "correct" time frame, they will feel happy and accepted by society. Failing to complete these tasks will make the individual unhappy and out of place in society.

While societal rules and customs certainly influence the tasks within each stage of development, other factors are also at play here. Havighurst also defined a list of what influences the tasks an individual strives to complete at each stage of development:

Social Influences (Pressures of Society)

These are the rules of society and other cultural ideas that influence an individual’s developmental tasks. Havighurst lists “Achieving a masculine or feminine social role” multiple times as a developmental task. That is going to look different in every culture (and will look depending on the individual’s age.) In cultures where masculine and feminine roles are not strictly defined, it may not be considered a task at all. As time progresses and societies change their ideas of gender, these tasks may look different or become less important to complete.

Psychological Influences (Personal Values)

These tasks do not just come from external forces. An individual’s personality and interests will also influence the tasks required to develop successfully. Someone who is more motivated by money and riches may face different developmental tasks than someone who puts more value into personal relationships or dedicating themselves to a noble cause. Psychological influences may also lead an individual to prioritize some developmental tasks over others.

Biological Influences (Physical Maturation)

Biology is also at play here. Certain tasks are reserved for childhood or adulthood simply because the body can or cannot take on those tasks. On one end of a person’s life is infancy and early adulthood, where developmental tasks include “learning to walk.” On the other end is later maturity, where developmental tasks include “adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health.”

If someone is seriously injured or develops a debilitating condition later in life, their developmental tasks may change.

Examples of Developmental Tasks

All of these tasks are subject to change due to biological, psychological, and social influences. But Havighurst provided an example list of tasks that go with each stage of life. I’m just going to include a handful of tasks for each stage, although Havighurst listed many more in his work.

Developmental Tasks in the stage of Infancy and Early Childhood (0-6 years old) include:

  • Learning to walk
  • Learning to talk
  • Toilet training
  • Learning the foundations of reading

Developmental Tasks in the stage of Middle Childhood (6-12 years old) include :

  • Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games
  • Learning to get along and play with children of the same age
  • Achieving personal independence
  • Recognizing what society deems as masculine or feminine social roles

Developmental Tasks in the stage of Adolescence (13-18 years old) include:

  • Accepting one’s physical body as it goes through changes
  • Preparing for partnership and family life
  • Preparing for an economic career
  • Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior; developing an ideology

Developmental Tasks in the stage of Early Adulthood (19-30 years old) include:

  • Finding a partner (and learning to cohabitate with them)
  • Achieving a preferred masculine or feminine social role
  • Managing a home and starting a family
  • Beginning a career
  • Taking on civic responsibility

building a home and family

Developmental Tasks in the stage of Middle Age (31-60 years old) include:

  • Achieving adult civic and social responsibility
  • Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults
  • Developing adult leisure-time activities
  • Accepting and adjusting to the physiologic changes or middle age

Developmental Tasks in the stage of Later Maturity (61-death) include:

  • Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health
  • Adjusting to retirement
  • Meeting social and civil obligations

Again, these tasks may look different for every individual. Civic and social responsibility, for example, may look different for every person, or may not be a priority at the age that Havighurst proposes. These tasks may serve as a guideline or a jumping-off point if you are thinking about your larger goals, but remember that they are influenced by different factors, including personal values.

Havighurst's Developmental Task Theory vs. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

One of the biggest differences between Havighurst’s Developmental Task Model and Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development is the length at which these theories cover. Havighurst’s theory covers the life of the person and Piaget’s theory covers infancy through the age of 12. 

Another difference is that Havighurst’s developmental tasks vary so widely based on societal and internal pressures. Various tasks when it comes to making friends, learning to read at the appropriate time, or feeling the pressure to adapt to society’s masculine and feminine roles may all be considered developmental tasks under Havighurst. 

But Piaget’s theory is more universal. He looks at skills that largely do not include interactions with others (although the child’s grasp of abstract concepts like empathy affects their relationships.) Conservation, object permanence, and problem-solving are all important cognitive developments no matter what society or the individual dictates. 

Jean Piaget's stages of development focus on cognitive development and reaching a child's full potential of intelligence. These stages align with Havighurst’s only if society and individuals prioritize intelligence from an early age. 

Comparing Havighurst vs. Piaget (Examples) 

One of the example tasks used in Havighurst’s Middle Childhood stage (ages 6-12) is “learning to get along and play with children of the same age.” When speaking in broad terms of application, this is identical to cognitive developments achieved within Jean Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage (ages 6-12.) But Piaget’s theory breaks down certain skills and abilities that allow a child to get along with children of their own age. Empathy is developed during this stage. With empathy, children are more likely to include each other, anticipate the child’s needs, and create a positive environment and relationship. 

Also during the Middle Childhood stage is the example task of “recognizing what society deems as masculine or feminine social roles.” Whether a child is born male or female does not impact how they will develop under Piaget’s theory. Later research based on his theory also fails to see a difference in the development of skills like conservation. Recognizing what society has deemed as “masculine” and “feminine” tasks, however, does start around this age , at least in American society. This task may not be as relevant to children who grow up in a country like Sweden, where those roles are not as important. 

Havighurst's Developmental Task Theory vs. Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development contain eight stages, compared to Havighurst’s six. Erikson’s theory speaks to the feelings a person has about themselves and their place in the world, rather than their ability to complete tasks dictated by societal norms. Both last for the entire length of a person’s life. 

Remember, Havighurst created his developmental stages before Erikson. The two theories have a few things in common, but the “achievements” of each stage of life are different. 

Erikson's stages of development focus on how people face certain crises. These crises are at the core of every person’s development: identity vs. confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, etc. Going through these crises, a person learns how to interact with themselves and the world around them. 

Comparing Havighurst vs. Erikson (Examples) 

Resolving these crises looks different than simply completing a task or checking items off their “bucket list”. Take, for example, the crisis of autonomy vs. shame. This stage takes place when a child is between the ages of 18 months and three years. During this point, the child is moving through the “Infancy and Early Childhood” stage of Havighurst’s Developmental Task Theory, which lasts from birth to six years old.

Erikson suggested that during this stage, a child aims to develop personal autonomy. They do this when they are confident in making decisions for themselves about their needs. This could look like going to the toilet on their own, a task that is outlined in Havighurst’s Developmental Task Theory. Or, it could look like choosing what they wear during the day. 

Another example is Erikson’s intimacy vs. isolation, which takes place around the ages of 20 and 40. During these years, an adult is experiencing what Havighurst identifies as the Early Adulthood and Middle Age stages. The intimacy vs. isolation stage is all about the journey to finding love, intimacy, and close relationships (romantic or otherwise). Does this mean getting married? Co-habitating with a partner? Making the choice between love and career? When it comes to Havighurst’s Developmental Task Theory, the answer all depends on the pressures of society and personal values. To Erikson, this stage is simply about finding intimacy and avoiding isolation. Whether this is resolved successfully also depends on whether the person feels comfortable in their own identity. 

Havighurst's Developmental Task Theory vs. Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development

Similar to Havighurst vs. Piaget, Freud’s stages of psychosexual development primarily focus on childhood, although the “genital stage” in Freud’s theory lasts from puberty until death. Like Piaget, the challenges and resolutions in Freud’s theory are universal…although there are fundamental differences that male and female children face. 

Comparing Havighurst vs. Freud (Examples) 

Like Havighurst (and arguably, Erikson), toilet training is a fundamental achievement in Freud’s theory. Freud’s anal stage takes place between the years of 1 and 3. What matters in Freud’s theory is not so much that toilet training is achieved, but how the relationship between parents and child changes during this stage. Traumatic memories during the toilet training process may lead some children to having an anal-retentive personality that lasts into adulthood. 

All of these theories of child development look are slightly different, but still have similarities and suggest similar methods for helping a child grow. Which theories had you heard of before reading this blog post? Which stand out to you? Let us know!

Related posts:

  • Piaget's Theory of Moral Development (4 Stages + Examples)
  • Concrete Operational Stage (3rd Cognitive Development)

Developmental Psychology

  • The Psychology of Long Distance Relationships
  • Beck’s Depression Inventory (BDI Test)

Reference this article:

About The Author

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Developmental Psychology:

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages

Trust vs Mistrust

Autonomy vs Shame

Initiative vs Guilt

Industry vs inferiority

Identity vs Confusion

Intimacy vs Isolation

Generativity vs Stagnation

Integrity vs Despair

Attachment Styles

Avoidant Attachment

Anxious Attachment

Secure Attachment

Lawrence Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Piaget's Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor Stage

Object Permanence

Preoperational Stage

Concrete Operational Stage

Formal Operational Stage

Unconditional Positive Regard

Birth Order

Zone of Proximal Development

middle childhood development task is

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LIBRARY OF ARTICLES: : Child Development :

Developmental tasks, what are developmental tasks.

Developmental Tasks: the broad “jobs” of childhood that need to be accomplished in each stage in order for children to learn life skills at the appropriate times.

  The tasks of one stage do not need to be completely mastered before a child begins the tasks of the next stage. However, the sooner he masters a task, the easier it will be to tackle the tasks of the next stage.

Children continue to work on most tasks throughout childhood, even though there is usually one stage at which any one task is most prominent.

Why is Knowing this Important?

When you know what tasks your children are working on:

You can model and teach the skills that will help them to successfully complete the “jobs” of their age.

You can be more patient

You will be less likely to blame yourself or your children when they behave in frustrating yet developmentally appropriate ways, such as:

all the “no’s” and not sharing of toddlerhood

the strict adherence to rules on one hand mixed with breaking rules at other times of school age children

the defiance, opposition and criticalness and peer focus of teens

____________________________________________________________

Click below for information about the developmental tasks associated with each age:

  • Tasks of infant thru 18 month-olds
  • Tasks of 18 month-olds thru 3 year-olds
  • Tasks of 4 and 5 year-olds
  • Tasks of 6 thru 11 year-olds
  • Tasks of 12 thru 18 year-olds

  For more information about the tasks associated with a given age, check out the following books. Purchasing from Amazon.com through our website supports the work we do to help parents do the best job they can to raise their children.

Growing Up Again by Clarke

  <recommended books about child development

<all our recommended parenting books  

The Tasks of Infants thru 18-Month-Olds

twins sleeping

learning to trust their environment

believing that their needs are important

feeling loved and worthy of being cared for

establishing a bond with their caretakers

exploring their world

About Babies

Babies and very young children depend on adults to meet all their needs. They do not see themselves as separate people from their parents. They form opinions (for good or bad) by taking in the caretakers’ feelings about them.  

Support your young children’s development by:

offering calm and consistent care.

meeting their needs whenever possible. Know that it is important to hold and cuddle your babies when they cry.

maintaining schedules and rituals. For example, at bedtime, bathtime, mealtime in order to help them feel secure.

talking to them even though they may not understand the words. They will understand the attention and the warm feelings which are communicated non-verbally.

providing a safe environment for them to explore.

  <return to top of page

<article about Child Development by Age

<additional articles about Child Development

<Library of Articles topic page  

Tasks of 18-Month-Olds thru 3-Year-Olds

child playing with bubbles

becoming more independent

beginning to see themselves as separate from the parent

“owning things” – this age group does not like to share (even things that are not their own!)

continuing to explore their world

beginning to identify feelings and express them in appropriate ways

About 18 months thru 3-year-olds

Children this age are very active and move back and forth between wanting to be independent and wanting the security of their parents.

One moment they will be negative and use their favorite word “no” (even for things they actually do want) as a way to express their power and show that they have their own opinions; and the next moment they will be clamoring for their parents’ love and attention.

They become frustrated easily, and their frequent inability to communicate their thoughts, complete tasks on their own, and have things on their own terms. Their frequent tantrums are an expression of that frustration.  

Help your 18-months to 3-year-olds accomplish these tasks by:

Setting limits.

baby-proofing your home so that they can explore and do things on their own with safety and without you having to oversee everything they do.

setting firm limits around safety issues.

recognizing that ‘no’ is the beginning of separation and self-assertion.

offering acceptable choices as a way to gain cooperation.

giving them two “yesses” for every time you have to say “no” to them.

choosing your battles, letting go of many issues that do not put them in danger to avoid unnecessary power struggles.

Encouraging Emotional and Cognitive Development

allowing them to “own” their things and not expect them to share graciously – they need to fully experience “owning” before they can genuinely share their things.

accepting positive and negative feelings.

teaching the difference between their feelings and their behavior; helping them recognize and express their feelings in appropriate ways while setting limits on unacceptable behavior.

permitting and encouraging them to do whatever they are capable of as long as it is safe to do.

providing a variety of things for your children to experience.

<Library of Articles topic page

The Tasks of the 4 and 5 Year Old

youngsters lined up at school

learning how to plan out and engage in a task

continuing to explore their world and discover how it works

learning how to use power

learning that behaviors have consequences

acquiring socially appropriate behavior

About 4 to 5 year-olds

Children this age are active and on the move. They ask a lot of questions (how, why, when, how long) as they try to understand the world. They like to try on different identities by role playing and playing “make-believe.”

They also like to be involved in many different activities and some are beginning to be quite social.

They may resist listening to their parents’ instructions as they experiment with power in relationships.  

Help your children accomplish the tasks of this age by:

following through with appropriate consequences to teach about cause and effect and to teach children to be accountable for their choices.

allowing them to make decisions about things that impact them so they gain a sense of control over their lives.

teaching them words to name and ways to express their feelings.

encouraging their “make-believe” play while helping them to distinguish between fantasy and reality.

supporting their involvement in activities that interest them.

providing information about the world.

correcting misinformation.

answering their many questions.

giving them freedom to explore and experiment as long as it is safe.

Supporting Social Development

  • encouraging relationships with peers.

The Tasks of 6 thru 11 Year-Olds

soccer

mastering difficult tasks

accepting and following rules and internalizing them

developing responsibility

learning many new skills, including social skills (especially same-sex peer relationships)

selecting adult role models of the same sex

continuing to learn how the world works

increasing their independence

enhancing their ability to reason

becoming more cooperative

About 6 thru 11 year-olds

6 – 11-year-olds ask a lot of questions as they gather information about the world and how it works. They are also eager to learn new skills, including social skills.

They are very interested in rules and why they exist. They want people to obey rules even though they do not necessarily abide by them. They may test rules, disagree with them, break them, or try to set them as they learn to make the rules their own.

They use their more mature reasoning abilities to understand the reasons why the rules exist and to differentiate between wants and needs. Along with exploration of rules and the beginnings of a cooperative spirit, games become prominent in their play.  

allowing children to see the results of their behavior by imposing appropriate consequences and following through with the consequences you set.

setting negotiable and non-negotiable rules.

letting them make decisions about things that effect them, to the degree that their judgment allows.

pointing out what is real versus fantasy and encouraging children to report events accurately.

Young children may lie or steal. Without thinking they are doomed to a life of crime and without blaming or humiliating them, you can confront children with the facts and help them to tell the truth and make amends.

assigning chores to encourage cooperation, responsibility, and feeling that they are part of and are needed in the family.

helping them to understand their feelings and identify the feelings of others.

teaching them to solve problems so they can deal with conflict and life’s challenges.

encouraging activities that reflect their interests, build skills, and increase their confidence and sense of accomplishment.

allowing, encouraging, and helping them to finish tasks.

praising them for trying to do things.

being a reliable source of information.

providing time with friends.

introducing them to role models other than their parents.

The Tasks of 12 thru 18 year-olds

Group of Friends Smiling

establishing their own identity

separating emotionally from parents

experimenting with different values and deciding their own values

learning about how to relate to the opposite sex

beginning to renegotiate relationships with family members

About 12 thru 18 year-olds

Many teens weather the storms of the age with little stress. Although parents often approach their children’s adolescent years with concern, most teens experience these adolescent years with great enthusiasm for and healthy involvement in all aspects of a well-rounded life.

Teens can be delightful and fun to have around. They can be very creative, energetic, idealistic, compassionate, altruistic, and engaging. Teens often use their new intellectual ability to think abstractly. This is the age when passionate involvement in ‘causes’ often becomes a prominent focus of a teen’s life.

Some teenagers are moody. They may suffer from anxiety as they confront the many changes they are experiencing socially, emotionally, intellectually, and physically.

Many teens become very critical of everything their parents do. In efforts to separate from their parents and become their own person, they become very judgmental about things their parents say and believe in.

The peer group becomes very important in their lives now.

It serves as their new “security blanket”. To help them with this separation, their friend connections allow them to partially cast off the family that has cared for them until now and to forge their own way in the world.

The peer group also serves as a testing ground for relating to the opposite sex and for belonging to groups. Teens’ social relationships help them to learn to navigate relationships now and throughout their lives.

They often re-connect with parents in late adolescence/early adulthood. At that point in their development, they become less dependent on their peers and more sure of themselves and their identities.

gradually turning over decision-making to your teens: allowing them to make decisions about things that effect their lives to the extent that their judgment permits.

matching their increased judgment and responsibility with increased privileges.

continuing to set firm rules and limits about safety matter and important values – you are still the parent and have the ultimate authority in your home.

setting and following through with consequences.

choosing your battles – you might let issues about clothing or appearance go.

continuing to monitor friendships, academic performance, internet/technology use; step in if you feel your children need guidance or limits.

remembering that even if your teens are pushing you away, they really do still want your input; find new ways to stay connected.

continuing to let your teens know what your values are.

being a good role model.

celebrating their growing up and growing independence.

encouraging healthy peer involvement; make your home teen-friendly without compromising your values.

supporting involvement in activities that interest your teen.

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16 Social Development in Middle Childhood

Chapter Objectives

After this chapter, you should be able to:

  • Describe the continuum of development of social skills during middle childhood
  • Describe social theories of development
  • Examine a variety of family structures
  • Discuss the effects of divorce on children in middle childhood
  • Examine the importance of positive friendships and peer relationships
  • Explain aggression, antisocial behaviour, and bullying.

INTRODUCTION

Between the ages of 6 and 12  years , children experience significant changes in their relationships with adults and peers.   Let’s examine some of the se important social interactions during these years.  

Indigenous Perspectives

Between the ages of 9 and 12, First Nation children are learning more and more about their responsibilities within the scope of family and community. This is a crucial time because hormones are starting to be more prominent in their bodies. They are starting to search for what their place is in the community. In the northernmost communities, boys (and some girls) from traditional/cultural families who exercise their right to harvest for food are being taught to hunt, trap and fish as well as harvesting foods that grow in the wild by a male relative. They will spend time with grandfathers to learn many skills. In some nations, the boys learn the Buffalo Dance. This teaching focuses on showing young men how to respect young women and their responsibilities when they become fathers. Girls are given more responsibilities regarding taking care of siblings and learning how to cook; especially in large families where there are many children. Women have more responsibilities in that they are more stationary; therefore, they tend to do most everything that has to do with taking care of the home, raising the children and knowing their place in the community. They are also shown skills such as sewing, beadwork, quillwork, tanning skins, doing laundry, etc. Those that follow ceremonies will spend time with the grandmothers to be taught the teachings of Moon Time (menses) and harvesting food and medicines. Within southernmost nations, they have adopted more of an agricultural and small game lifestyle due to better weather conditions. Both males and females learn to tend the crops, snare for small game and fish. Because males don’t have to go very far to harvest game, their role is more as a protector of the family and community. From a traditional/cultural viewpoint, they follow longhouse teachings depending on which nation they belong to. It is not uncommon for either sexes to go live with their grandparents to acquire their knowledge so that it can be passed down from generation to generation. It is also important to note that due to the residential school experience, many families have gone through colonization which has drastically altered their lifestyle; therefore, some families no longer practice their ancestral way of life.

Continuum of development

The Continuum of Development identifies several root social skills that are emerging in children. Between the ages of 5-8, f riendships become increasingly important. Children start to have a “best friend”. Peer relationships are more stable because conflict resolution and problem-solving skills are improving. During these years, children are able to co-operate, share, help and show empathy for others. They are better able to self-regulate their behaviour because they are now capable of taking another person’s point of view and see how their behaviour affects someone else (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2014). Between the ages of 9-12, friends begin to have even more influence. This is referred to as “peer pressure”; the feeling that one must do what one’s peers are doing in order to be accepted by the group. Children this age start to want to put some physical and emotional distance between themselves and adults. They may begin to show interest in teen culture – music, social media, clothing and make-up. They feel strongly that they no longer want to be treated like a child (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2014).

social theories of development

Erik Erikson- Industry vs. Inferiority 

Erik Erikson proposed that we are motivated by a need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives. As we’ve learned in previous chapters, Erikson’s psychosocial theory has eight stages of development over the lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage, there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.

During middle childhood (ages 6-12), children face the task of Industry versus Inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves to their peers to see how they measure up.

a boy receiving an academic award from an adult while his parents look on

Figure  12.1: The academic award this child is receiving may contribute to their sense of industry. (Image by Janarthanan Kesavan is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0) 

They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate when they don’t measure up (OpenStax, n.d.).

According to Erikson, children in middle childhood are very busy or industrious. They are constantly doing, planning, playing, getting together with friends, achieving. This is a very active time and a time when they are gaining a sense of how they measure up when compared with friends. Erikson believed that if these industrious children can be successful in their endeavours, they will get a sense of confidence for future challenges. If not, a sense of inferiority can be particularly haunting during middle childhood.

Sigmund Freud – Psychoanalytic Theory 

The psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) focused on unconscious, biological forces that he felt shape individual personality. Freud thought that the personality consists of three parts: the id, the ego, and the superego. The id is the selfish part of the personality and consists of biological instincts that all babies have, including the need for food and, more generally, the demand for immediate gratification. As babies get older, they learn that not all their needs can be immediately satisfied and thus develop the ego, or the rational part of the personality. As children get older still, they internalize society’s norms and values and thus begin to develop their superego, which represents society’s conscience. Freud believed that, in the event a child’s superego does not become strong enough, the individual is more at risk for being driven by the id to commit antisocial behaviour.

a child walking across a snowy field while looking back at his footprints

Figure  12.2: Development of the superego helps children overcome their unconscious desire to behave antisocially. (Image by Annie Spratt on Unsplash) 

child and the family

One of  t he  reasons  we  often   turn out much like our parents is that our families are such an important part of our socialization process. When we are   young ,  our primary caregivers are almost always one or both of our parents ,  either biological or non-biological .   For several years we have more contact with them than with any other adults. Because this contact occurs in our most formative years, our parents’ interaction with us and the messages they teach us can have a profound impact throughout our lives. During middle childhood, children   start to   spend less time with parents and more time with peers. Parents   often  find that they   have to modify their approach to parenting to accommodate the child’s growing independence. Using reason and engaging in joint decision-making whenever possible may be the most effective approach (Berk, 2007, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021).  

image of son sitting on father's lap reading a book together

Figure 12.3: When children grow up to love reading, they may have been influenced by the positive experiences of being read to by their families. ( Image  by  San José Public Library  is licensed under  CC BY-SA 2.0 ) 

Family Atmosphere 

One of the ways to assess the quality of family life is to consider the tasks of families. Berger (2005, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021) lists five family functions:

  • Providing food, clothing and shelter
  • Encouraging learning
  • Developing self-esteem
  • Nurturing friendships with peers
  • Providing harmony and stability

Notice that in addition to providing food, shelter, and clothing, families are responsible for helping the child learn, relate to others, and have a confident sense of self. The family provides a harmonious and stable environment for living. A supportive home environment is one in which the child’s physical, cognitive, emotional, and social needs are adequately met. Sometimes families emphasize physical needs but ignore cognitive or emotional needs. Other times, families pay close attention to physical needs and academic requirement, but may fail to nurture the child’s friendships with peers or guide the child toward developing healthy relationships. Parents might want to consider how it feels to live in the household. Is it stressful and conflict-ridden? Is it a place where family members enjoy being? (Lally & Valentine-French, 2019).  

a mother looking on while her child uses a tablet

Figure  12.4: This mother is encouraging learning in their child. ( Image  by  Intel Free Press  is licensed under  CC BY-SA 2.0 )  

The Family Stress Model 

Family relationships are significantly affected by conditions outside the home. For instance, the Family Stress Model  describes how financial difficulties are associated with parents’ depressed moods, which in turn could lead to marital problems and poor parenting that contributes to poorer child adjustment (Conger, Conger, & Martin, 2010, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021).  Divorce is typically associated with economic stresses for children and parents, the renegotiation of parent-child relationships (with one parent typically as primary custodian and the other assuming a visiting relationship), and many other significant adjustments for children. Divorce is often regarded by children as a sad turning point in their lives, although for most it is not associated with long-term problems of adjustment (Emery, 1999, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021).

Many Indigenous families live in poverty due to a lack of employment opportunities; especially in small and remote communities. Non-traditional ideologies of parental responsibilities, have further put indigenous children at risk. Also, as previously mentioned, the lack of schools in remote communities has forced families to be separated. Often, the child has to move to an urban setting with family friends or with extended family members to attend school which, in turn, creates more trauma for the child. Finally, the onset of intergenerational trauma from the legacy of residential schools and colonization has created cases of substance abuse, high rates of suicide, spousal abuse, and child neglect in many Indigenous communities.

Family Forms 

As discussed previously in chapter 11, the sociology of the family examines the family as an institution and a unit of socialization. Sociological studies of the family look at demographic characteristics of the family members: family size, age, ethnicity and gender of its members, social class of the family, the economic level and mobility of the family, professions of its members, and the education levels of the family members.

C urrently, one of the biggest issues that  sociologists  study are the changing roles of family members.   The  proportion  of dual -earner  Canadian families has roughly doubled in the last 40 years , from 36% of two parent families to 69%.  Not only are more parents  in the paid workforce ; more dual-earner couples with children have two  full-time  working parents.  As of 2015, 75% of dual-earner  Canadian  couples  with children reported that both parents work ed  at least 30 hours per   week (Statistics Canada, 2016) . This dramatic increase in maternal employment is reflected in changing views about  gender roles in the family.  For example, in 1976 stay-at-home fathers  accounted for roughly 1 in 70 families with a stay-at-home parent. By 2015, that ratio incre ased to 1 in 10 families (Statistics Canada, 2018). 

What Families Look Like

Two young adults sitting against a brick wall, reading.

Figure  12.5 : a childless family ( Image  by  Adam Jones  is licensed under  CC BY-SA 2.0

A father sitting on a dock with his arms around his two young children.

Figure  12.7 : an extended family ( Image  by  Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson  is in the public domain)

Two men (parents) walking along the beach holding their two young children.

Figure  12.8 : a same-sex family ( Image  by Surrogacy-UK is licensed under  CC BY-SA 3.0)

A mother sitting at a pcnic table with her two young children, helping them eat their lunch.

Figure  12.9 : a single parent (mother) family ( Image  is in the public domain)

Two smiling parents (male & female) each holding a holding a child on their back.

Figure  12.10 : a nuclear family ( Image  by  Army Medicine  is licensed under  CC BY 2.0 )

Throughout this textbook and in the preceding images, you can see a variety of types of families. A few of these family types were introduced in Chapter 11. The sections below list some of the diverse types of families:

families without children

Singlehood family  contains a person who is not married or in a common-law relationship. He or she may share a relationship with a partner but lead a single lifestyle.   Couples that are  childless  are often overlooked in the discussion of families.  

families with one parent

A single-parent family usually refers to a parent who has most of the day-to-day responsibilities in the raising of the child or children, who is not living with a spouse or partner, or who is not married. The dominant caregiver is the parent with whom the children reside for the majority of the time; if the parents are separated or divorced, children live with their custodial parent and have visitation with their noncustodial parent. In western society in general, following a separation a child will end up with the primary caregiver, usually the mother, and a secondary caregiver, usually the father.

Single parent by choice families refer to a family that a single person builds by choice. These families can be built with the use of assisted reproductive technology and donor gametes (sperm and/or egg) or embryos, surrogacy, foster or kinship care, and adoption.

two parent families

The nuclear family (also referred to as the elementary family or the conjugal family) is a family group consisting of 2 parents and their children. While common in industrialized cultures, it is not actually the most common type of family worldwide.  

Cohabitation  is an arrangement where two people who are not married live together in an intimate relationship, particularly an emotionally and/or sexually intimate one, on a long-term or permanent basis. Today, cohabitation is a common pattern among people in the Western world.

Many Indigenous nations have a different outlook about marriage in which many do not get married; therefore, they would fall under cohabitating. Depending on whether the nation is matriarchal or patriarchal, the child would take on the last name of either the mother or the father. Some traditional families will have a traditional marriage; however, this is not as common today.

Blended families  describe families formed when one or both parents with children from a former family create a new family. Blended families are complex in a number of ways that can pose unique challenges to those who seek to form successful relationships (Visher & Visher, 1985, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021).

families that include additional adults

Extended families  include three generations, grandparents, parents, and children. This is the most common type of family worldwide.  

Families by choice  is increasingly being practiced by those who see benefits to including people beyond blood relatives in their families.

additional forms of families

Kinship families  are those in which the full-time care, nurturing, and protection of a child is provided by relatives, members of the child’s First Nation, godparents, or other adults who have a family relationship to a child. When children cannot be cared for by their parents, research finds benefits to kinship care.

When a person assumes the parenting of another, usually a child, from that person’s biological or legal parent or parents this creates  adoptive families . Legal adoption permanently transfers all rights and responsibilities and is intended to affect a permanent change in status and as such requires societal recognition, either through legal or religious sanction. As introduced in Chapter 2, adoption can be done privately, through an agency, or through foster care, both domestically or from abroad. Adoptions can be closed (no contact with birth/biological families or open, with different degrees of contact with birth/biological families). Couples, both opposite and same-sex, and single parents can adopt (although not all agencies and foreign countries will work with unmarried, single, or same-sex intended parents).

When parents are not of the same ethnicity, they build interracial families. There are parts of the world where marrying someone outside of your race (or social class) has legal and social ramifications. These families may experience issues unique to each individual family’s culture.

In first nation communities there may not be a legal adoption; however, a child may be raised by an aunt and uncle, a close family friend or grandparents without any papers being signed. It is a mutual agreement between the family member and the adopted family. This way the biological parents can still have a part to play in the child’s life. Sometimes it is in the best interest of the child. Sometimes the child is taken care of by that family because the parents are not yet ready to rear children or they are pursuing their education to better their lives. It is a very unique way that I have come to appreciate. Many people may judge the families.

changes in families – divorce

The tasks of families listed above are functions that can be fulfilled in a variety of family types. Harmony and stability can be achieved in many family forms and when it is disrupted, either through divorce, or efforts to blend families, or any other circumstances, the child   may  suffer (Hetherington & Kelly, 2002, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021). Changes continue to happen, but for children they are especially vulnerable. Divorce and how it impacts children  depends  on how the caregivers handle the divorce as well as how they support the emotional needs of the child.  

silhouette figures of a child on his knees with arms outstretched, a father figure facing the wall and a mother figure walking away.

Figure  1 2.13 : How divorce impacts children largely  depends  on how parents handle it. ( Image  by Tony Guyton is licensed under  CC BY 2.0 )  

A lot of attention has been given to the impact of divorce on the life of children. The assumption has been that divorce has a strong, negative impact on the child and that single-parent families are deficient in some way. However, 75-80 percent of children and adults who experience divorce suffer no long-term effects (Hetherington & Kelly, 2002, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021). An objective view of divorce,  re – partnering , and remarriage indicates that divorce, remarriage and life in  blended  families   can have a variety of effects.  

factors affecting the impact of divorce

As you look at the consequences (both pro and con) of divorce and remarriage on children, keep the previously mentioned family functions in mind. Some negative consequences are a result of financial hardship rather than divorce per se (Drexler, 2005, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021). Some positive consequences reflect improvements in meeting these functions. For instance, we have learned that a positive self-esteem comes in part from a belief in the self and one’s abilities rather than merely being complimented by others. In single-parent homes, children may be given more opportunity to discover their own abilities and gain independence that fosters self-esteem. If divorce leads to fighting between the parents and the child is included in these arguments, their self-esteem may suffer.

The impact of divorce on children depends on a number of factors. The degree of conflict prior to the divorce plays a role. If the divorce means a reduction in tensions, the child may feel relief. If the parents have kept their conflicts hidden, the announcement of a divorce can come as a shock and be met with enormous resentment. Another factor that has a great impact on the child concerns financial hardships they may suffer, especially if financial support is inadequate. Another difficult situation for children of divorce is the position they are put into if the parents continue to argue and fight—especially if they bring the children into those arguments.

Short-term consequences: In roughly the first year following divorce, children may exhibit some of these short-term effects:  

1. Grief over losses suffered. The child will grieve the loss of the parent they no longer see as frequently. The child may also grieve about other family members that are no longer available. Grief sometimes comes in the form of sadness but it can also be experienced as anger or withdrawal. Older children may feel depressed.

2. Reduced Standard of Living.  Very often, divorce means a change in the amount of money coming into the household. Children experience new constraints on spending or entertainment. School-aged children, especially, may notice that they can no longer have toys, clothing or other items to which they’ve grown accustomed. Or it may mean that there is less eating out or being able to afford cable television, and so on. The custodial parent may experience stress at not being able to rely on child support payments or having the same level of income as before. This can affect decisions regarding healthcare, vacations, rents, mortgages and other expenditures. And the stress can result in less happiness and relaxation in the home. The parent who has to take on more work may also be less available to the children.

3. Adjusting to Transitions.  Children may also have to adjust to other changes accompanying a divorce. The divorce might mean moving to a new home and changing schools or friends. It might mean leaving a neighbourhood that has meant a lot to them as well.

Long-term consequences: Here are some effects that go beyond just the first year following divorce: 

1. Economic/Occupational Status.  One of the most commonly cited long-term effects of divorce is that children of divorce may have lower levels of education or occupational status. This may be a consequence of lower income and resources for funding education rather than to divorce per se. In those households where economic hardship does not occur, there may be no impact on economic status (Drexler, 2005, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021).

2. Improved Relationships with the Custodial Parent (usually the mother):  Most children of divorce lead happy, well-adjusted lives and develop stronger, positive relationships with their custodial parent (Seccombe and Warner, 2004, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021). Others have also found that relationships between mothers and children become closer and stronger (Guttman, 1993, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021) and suggest that greater equality and less rigid parenting is beneficial after divorce (Steward, Copeland, Chester, Malley, and Barenbaum, 1997, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021).

3. Greater emotional independence in sons. Drexler (2005, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021) notes that sons who are raised by mothers only develop an emotional sensitivity to others that is beneficial in relationships.

4. Feeling more anxious in their own love relationships.  Children of divorce may feel more anxious about their own relationships as adults. This may reflect a fear of divorce if things go wrong, or it may be a result of setting higher expectations for their own relationships.

5. Adjustment of the custodial parent. Furstenberg and Cherlin (1991, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021) believe that the primary factor influencing the way that children adjust to divorce is the way the custodial parent adjusts to the divorce. If that parent is adjusting well, the children will benefit. This may explain a good deal of the variation we find in children of divorce .

Photo of a mother in army uniform with arms around her 3 young children.

Figure 12.14: Jeanette Wilinski is the mother of Elizabeth, Logan and Alexis. A single mom has to find a balance between taking care of the Air Force mission and taking care of their children. ( Image  by the  Scott Air Force Base  is in the public domain) 

Families are the most important part of the 6 to 1 2 -year-old life. However, peers and friendships become more and more important to the child in middle childhood.  

Friendships, Peers, and Peer groups  

Parent-child relationships are not the only significant relationships in a child’s life. Friendships take on new importance as judges of one’s worth, competence, and attractiveness. Friendships provide the opportunity for learning social skills such as how to communicate with others and how to negotiate differences. Children get ideas from one another about how to perform certain tasks, how to gain popularity, what to wear, say, and listen to, and how to act. This society of children marks a transition from a life focused on the family to a life concerned with peers. Peers play a key role in a child’s self-esteem at this age as any parent who has tried to console a rejected child will tell you. No matter how complimentary and encouraging the parent may be, being rejected by friends can only be remedied by renewed acceptance (Lumen Learning, n.d.).  

Photo of 3 children in the living room with a mother sitting and reading.

Figure   12.15 : Peers influence a child’s self-esteem. ( Image  by  Robins Air Force Base  is in the public domain)

Children’s conceptualization of what makes someone a “friend” changes from a more egocentric understanding to one based on mutual trust and commitment. Both Bigelow (1977) and Selman (1980) (as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021) believe that these changes are linked to advances in cognitive development. Bigelow and La Gaipa (1975, as cited in Lumen Learning, n.d.)) outline three stages to children’s conceptualization of friendship . 

Table 12.1: Three Stages to Children’s Conceptualization of Friendship

Table  12.1 :  Three Stages to Children’s Conceptualization of Friendship ( Lifespan Development – Module 6: Middle Childhood  by  Lumen Learning  references  Psyc  200 Lifespan Psychology  by Laura Overstreet, licensed under  CC BY 4.0 )  

Friendships are very important for children. The social interaction with another child who is similar in age, skills, and knowledge provokes the development of many social skills that are valuable for the rest of life (Bukowski, Buhrmester, & Underwood, 2011, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021). In these relationships, children learn how to initiate and maintain social interactions with other children. They learn skills for managing conflict, such as turn-taking, compromise, and bargaining. Play also involves the mutual, sometimes complex, coordination of goals, actions, and understanding. Through these experiences, children develop friendships that provide additional sources of security and support to those provided by their parents (Lally & Valentine-French, 2019).

five stages of friendship from early childhood through adulthood

Selman (1980, as cited by Lally & Valentine-French, 2019) outlines five stages of friendship from early childhood through to adulthood:

  • In stage 0,   momentary physical interaction ,  a friend is someone who you are playing with  at this point in time . Selman notes that this is typical of children between the ages of three and six. These early friendships are based more on circumstances (e.g., a neighbour) than on genuine similarities.  
  • In stage 1,  one-way assistance , a friend is someone who does nice things for you , such as saving you a seat on the school bus or sharing a toy. However, children in this stage, do not always think about what they are contributing to the relationships. Nonetheless, having a friend is important and children will sometimes put up with a not so nice friend, just to have a friend. Children as young as five and as old as nine may be in this stage.  
  • In stage 2,  fair-weather cooperation , children are very concerned with fairness and reciprocity, and thus,   a friend is someone who returns a favour . In this stage, if a child does something nice for a friend there is an expectation that the friend will do something nice for them at the first available opportunity. When this fails to happen, a child may break off the friendship. Selman found that some children as young as seven and as old as twelve are in this stage.  
  • In stage 3,   intimate and mutual sharing , typically between the ages of eight and fifteen,   a friend is someone who you can tell them things you would tell no one else . Children and teens in this stage no longer “keep score,” and do things for a friend because they genuinely care for the person. If a friendship dissolves in this stage it is usually due to a violation of trust. However, children in this stage do expect their friend to share similar interests and viewpoints and may take it as a betrayal if a friend likes someone that they do not.  
  • In stage 4,  autonomous interdependence ,   a friend is someone who accepts you and that you accept as they are . In this stage children, teens, and adults accept and even appreciate differences between themselves and their friends. They are also not as possessive, so they are less likely to feel threatened if their friends have other relationships or interests. Children are typically twelve or older in this stage.  

Peer groups

Peer relationships can be challenging as well as supportive (Rubin, Coplan , Chen, Bowker, & McDonald, 2011, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021). Being accepted by other children is an important source of affirmation and self-esteem, but peer rejection can foreshadow later behaviour problems (especially when children are rejected due to aggressive behaviour). With increasing age, children confront the challenges of bullying, peer victimization, and managing conformity pressures. Social comparison with peers is an important means by which children evaluate their skills, knowledge, and personal qualities, but it may cause them to feel that they do not measure up well against others. For example, a child who is not athletic may feel unworthy of their football-playing peers and revert to shy behaviour, isolating themselves and avoiding conversation. Conversely, an athlete who doesn’t “get” Shakespeare may feel embarrassed and avoid reading altogether.  

Photo of a group of children at school, smiling for the picture.

Figure   12.16 : Social comparison with peers is an important means by which children evaluate their value. ( Image  by the  U.S Army  is in the public domain)  

Also, with the approach of adolescence, peer relationships become focused on psychological intimacy, involving personal disclosure, vulnerability, and loyalty (or its betrayal)—which significantly affect a child’s outlook on the world. Each of these aspects of peer relationships require developing very different social and emotional skills than those that emerge in parent-child relationships. They also illustrate the many ways that peer relationships influence the growth of personality and self-concept (Lally & Valentine-French, 2019).  

Peer relationships

Most children want to be liked and accepted by their friends. Some popular children are nice and have good social skills. These popular-prosocial children tend to do well in school and are cooperative and friendly. Popular-antisocial children may gain popularity by acting tough or spreading rumours about others ( Cillessen & Mayeux, 2004, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021). Rejected children are sometimes excluded because they are shy and withdrawn. The withdrawn-rejected children are easy targets for bullies because they are unlikely to retaliate when belittled (Boulton, 1999, as cited by Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson, 2021). Other rejected children are ostracized because they are aggressive, loud, and confrontational. The aggressive-rejected children may be acting out of a feeling of insecurity. Unfortunately, their fear of rejection only leads to behaviour that brings further rejection from other children. Children who are not accepted are more likely to experience conflict, lack confidence, and have trouble adjusting.  

3 children sitting on the pavement playing with toys.

Figure  12.17 : Peer relationships are particularly important for children. They can be supportive but also challenging. Peer rejection may lead to behavioural problems later in life. ( Image  by  tup  wanders  is licensed under  CC BY 2.0 )  

Peer Relationships are studied using  sociometric assessment  (which measures attraction between members of a group). Children are asked to mention the three children they like to play with the most, and those they do not like to play with. The number of times a child is nominated for each of the two categories (like and do not like) is tabulated.

Table 12.2: Categories in Peer Relationships

For a child that lives in a First Nation (FN) community, peer relationships will differ from that of a child who lives in an urban setting where there may be a variety of choices. In small remote communities, they will not have as much selection regarding peer relationships. Some children might not have a choice regarding friendships. 

During middle childhood, children start to spend less time with parents and more time with peers. Parents often find that they have to modify their approach to parenting to accommodate the child’s growing independence. In small and/or remote FN communities, a child’s peer may well be a cousin or another close relative due to a smaller population. This unique relationship is more like a sibling relationship. Other peers become like cousins. Much of their life from the time they are able to play outside alone, at school or at community functions is spent playing and exploring with peers that are more like cousins. There is a sense of safety on a FN community because everyone in the community watches out for the children. Children might gain independence at an earlier age than that of a child in a city or bigger urban setting. Often, the parents of their peer/adopted cousin become aunties and uncles. They are very much a part of the child’s life in regards to the roles that aunties and uncles play as mentioned in a comment from a previous chapter; they are the disciplinarian. Parenting styles are very different in FN communities. In large family structures, the older siblings are given the task of helping to rear their younger siblings.

aggression, antisocial behaviour, bullies and victims

Aggression and Antisocial Behaviour 

Aggression may be physical, verbal or emotional. Aggression is activated in large part by the amygdala and regulated by the prefrontal cortex.

Picture of a young boy with red hair with an aggressive stance, fists up and squinting into the camera.

Figure  12.18 : This child is threatening with physical aggression. ( Image  by  Philippe Put  is licensed under  CC BY 2.0 )

Testosterone is associated with increased aggression in both males and females. Aggression  can be caused by negative experiences and emotions, including frustration and pain. Heat has also been shown to increase aggressive behaviour.  Psychologist Craig Anderson studied archival data and found the rate of violent crimes increases with temperature (Anderson, 2001). Finally,  a s predicted by principles of observational learning, research evidence makes it very clear that, on average, people who watch violent behaviour become more aggressive. Early, antisocial behaviour leads to befriending others who also engage in antisocial behaviour, which only perpetuates the downward cycle of aggression and wrongful acts (Lally & Valentine-French, 2019). 

Bullying and Victims

According to the Government of Canada (2016), bullying is defined as “willful, repeated aggressive behaviour with negative intent used by a child to maintain power over another child”.  There are different types of bullying, including verbal bullying, which is saying or writing mean things, teasing, name-calling, taunting, threatening, or making inappropriate sexual comments. Social bullying, also referred to as relational bullying, involves spreading rumours, purposefully excluding someone from a group, or embarrassing someone on purpose. Physical bullying involves hurting a person’s body or possessions.

A more recent form of bullying is cyberbullying, which involves electronic technology. Examples of cyberbullying include sending mean text messages or emails, creating fake profiles, and posting embarrassing pictures, videos or rumours on social networking sites. Children who experience cyberbullying have a harder time getting away from the behaviour because it can occur any time of day and without being in the presence of others.

Young girl with her face in her hands, bent over a laptop.

Figure  12.19 : Cyberbullying can  be devastating for children. (Image on  Pixabay )  

Those at Risk for Bullying 

Bullying can happen to anyone but some students are at an increased risk for being bullied, including lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered, queer, two spirit (LGBTQ2S) youth, those with disabilities, and those who are socially isolated. Additionally, those who are perceived as different, weak, less popular, overweight, or having low self-esteem, have a higher likelihood of being bullied.

Those Who are More Likely to Bully 

Bullies are often thought of as having low self-esteem, and then bully others to feel better about themselves. Although this can occur, many bullies in fact have high levels of self-esteem. They possess considerable popularity and social power and have well-connected peer relationships. They do not lack self-esteem, and instead lack empathy for others. They like to dominate or be in charge of others.

Bullied Children 

Unfortunately, most children do not let adults know that they are being bullied. Some fear retaliation from the bully, while others are too embarrassed to ask for help. Those who are socially isolated may not know who to ask for help or believe that no one would care or assist them if they did ask for assistance. Consequently, it is important for parents and teachers to know the warning signs that may indicate a child is being bullied. These include: unexplainable injuries, lost or destroyed possessions, changes in eating or sleeping patterns, declining school grades, not wanting to go to school, loss of friends, decreased self-esteem and/or self-destructive behaviours.

In this chapter we looked at:

  • Erikson’s fourth stage of industry vs. Inferiority
  • The role of the family and different forms of families
  • Divorce and how it changes the family
  • The importance of peers and friendships
  • Children in peer groups and types of friendships
  • Consequences of peer acceptance or rejection

Anderson, C. (2001).  Heat and Violence.  Retrieved from https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/1467-8721.00109

Government of Canada. (2016). How to recognize bullying. Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/public-health/services/bullying/how-recognize-bullying.html

Lally, M. & Valentine-French, S. (2019). Lifespan development: A psychological perspective (2nd ed.). Retrieved from http://dept.clcillinois.edu/psy/LifespanDevelopment.pdf

Lumen Learning. (n.d.). Lecture: Middle childhood. In Lifespan development. Retrieved from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/lifespandevelopment2/chapter/lecture-middle-childhood/

Ontario Ministry of Education. (2014). Excerpts from “Elect”. Retrieved from https://www.dufferincounty.ca/sites/default/files/rtb/Excerpts-from-Early-Learning-for-Every-Child-Today.pdf

OpenStax. (n.d.). Psychology: 9.1 Lifespan theories. Retrieved from https://openstax.org/books/psychology/pages/9-2-lifespan-theories

Statistics Canada. (2018). Changing profile of stay-at-home parents. Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11-630-x/11-630-x2016007-eng.htm

Statistics Canada. (2016). The rise of the dual earner family with children. Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11-630-x/11-630-x2016005-eng.htm

Child Growth and Development Canadian Ed Copyright © 2022 by Tanya Pye; Susan Scoffin; Janice Quade; and Jane Krieg is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Middle Childhood

Why learn about development during middle childhood.

Four girls shown from behind jumping and holding hands

When Raekwon first started school, he wasn’t sure that he would like it. The thought of going to one place for a long time every day seemed sort of boring. Raekwon found that school was actually really exciting, though. He made friends, he got to learn about new things, he got to play at recess, and the food was good! He found that the days actually went by quickly! Now in fourth grade, Raekwon cannot wait for summer to be over so that he can go to school and meet-up with his friends regularly again.

Middle childhood is the period of life that begins when children enter school and lasts until they reach adolescence. Think for a moment about children at this age that you may know. What are their lives like? What kinds of concerns do they express and with what kinds of activities are their days filled? If possible, would you want to return to this period of life? Why or why not?

Early childhood and adolescence seem to get much more attention than middle childhood. Perhaps this is because growth patterns slow at this time, the id becomes hidden during the latent stage, according to Freud, and children spend much more time in schools, with friends, and in structured activities. Parents may easily lose track of their children’s development unless they stay directly involved in these worlds. It is important to stop and give full attention to middle childhood to stay in touch with these children and to take notice of the varied influences on their lives in a larger world. After all, they are developing in many incredible ways.

What you’ll learn to do: describe physical development during middle childhood

Children enter middle childhood still looking very young, and end the stage on the cusp of adolescence. Most children have gone through a growth spurt that makes them look rather grown-up. The obvious physical changes are accompanied by changes in the brain. While we don’t see the actual brain changing, we can see the effects of the brain changes in the way that children in middle childhood play sports, write, and play games.

Learning Outcomes

  • Describe physical growth during middle childhood
  • Examine health risks in school-aged children

Growth Rates and Motor Skills

Rates of growth generally slow during middle childhood. Typically, a child will gain about 5-7 pounds a year and grow about 2 inches per year. Many girls and boys experience a prepubescent growth spurt, but it tends to happen earlier in girls (around age 9-10) than in boys (around age 11-12). Because of this, girls are often taller than boys at the end of middle childhood. Children in middle childhood tend to slim down and gain muscle strength and lung capacity making it possible to engage in strenuous physical activity for long periods of time.

The brain reaches its adult size at about age 7. That is not to say that the brain is fully developed by age 7. The brain continues to develop for many years after it has attained its adult size. The school-aged child is better able to plan, coordinate activity using both left and right hemispheres of the brain, and to control emotional outbursts. Paying attention is also improved as the prefrontal cortex matures. As the myelin continues to develop throughout middle childhood, the child’s reaction time also improves.

During middle childhood, physical growth slows down. One result of the slower growth rate is an improvement in motor skills. Children of this age tend to sharpen their abilities to perform gross motor skills, such as riding a bike, and fine motor skills, such as cutting their fingernails.

Losing Primary Teeth

smiling boy on a swing with gap in teeth

Deciduous teeth, commonly known as milk teeth, baby teeth, primary teeth, and temporary teeth, are the first set of teeth in the growth development of humans. The primary teeth are important for the development of the mouth, development of the child’s speech, for the child’s smile, and play a role in chewing of food. Most children lose their first tooth around age 6, then continue to lose teeth for the next 6 years. In general, children lose the teeth in the middle of the mouth first and then lose the teeth next to those in sequence over the 6-year span. By age 12, generally, all of the teeth are permanent teeth. However, it is not extremely rare for one or more primary teeth to be retained beyond this age, sometimes well into adulthood, often because the secondary tooth fails to develop.

Health Risks: Childhood Obesity

Nearly 20 percent of school-aged American children are obese. The percentage of obesity in school-aged children has increased substantially since the 1960s, and it continues to increase. This is true in part because of the introduction of a steady diet of television and other sedentary activities. In addition, we have come to emphasize high fat, fast foods as a culture. Pizza, hamburgers, chicken nuggets, and “Lunchables” with soda have replaced more nutritious foods as staples.

School Lunches

School lunches must meet the applicable recommendations of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans. These guidelines state that no more than 30 percent of an individual’s calories should come from fat and less than 10 percent from saturated fat. Regulations also state that school lunches must provide one-third of the recommended dietary allowances of protein, Vitamin A, Vitamin C, iron, calcium, and calories. School lunches must meet federal nutrition requirements over the course of one week’s worth of lunches. However, local school food authorities may make decisions about which specific foods to serve and how they are prepared.

Many children in the United States buy their lunches in the school cafeteria, so it might be worthwhile to look at the nutritional content of school lunches. You can obtain this information through your local school district’s website. An example of a school menu and nutritional analysis from a school district in north-central Texas is a meal consisting of pasta alfredo, breadstick, peach cup, tomato soup, and a brownie, and 2% milk. Students may also purchase chips, cookies, or ice cream along with their meals. Many school districts rely on the sale of dessert and other items in the lunchrooms to make additional revenues and many children purchase these additional items so our look at their nutritional intake should also take this into consideration.

Consider another menu from an elementary school in the state of Washington. This sample meal consists of a chicken burger, tater tots, fruit and veggies, and 1% or nonfat milk. This meal is also in compliance with Federal Nutrition Guidelines but has about 300 fewer calories. And, children are not allowed to purchase additional desserts such as cookies or ice cream.

Michelle Obama has been a recent advocate for nutritional school lunches. Since the Healthy, Hunger-Free Act of 2010 , she has worked diligently to defend the importance of healthy school lunches but has largely not been successful in her efforts. Schools in the United States are having difficulty enforcing nutrition values for fear of being wasteful because some new standards, such as whole grains, more vegetables, and reduced sodium levels initially resulted in fewer children eating their lunches. Children eat 16% more vegetables and 23% more fruit during lunches, and over 90% of schools report meeting the new nutritional guidelines.

One consequence of childhood obesity is that children who are overweight tend to be ridiculed and teased by others. This can certainly be damaging to their self-image and popularity. In addition, obese children risk suffering orthopedic problems such as knee injuries, and an increased risk of heart disease and stroke in adulthood. It may be difficult for a child who is obese to become a non-obese adult. In addition, the number of cases of pediatric diabetes has risen dramatically in recent years.

Dieting is not the solution to childhood obesity. If you diet, your basal metabolic rate tends to decrease, making the body burn even fewer calories to maintain the weight. Increased activity is much more effective in lowering the weight and improving the child’s health and psychological well-being. Exercise reduces stress and being an overweight child, subjected to the ridicule of others can certainly be stressful. Parents should take caution against emphasizing diet alone to avoid the development of any obsession about dieting that can lead to eating disorders as teens. Again, increasing a child’s activity level is most helpful.

Organized Sports: Pros and Cons

Children playing soccer. A green team and a yellow team, both boys and girls, run towards the ball.

Middle childhood seems to be a great time to introduce children to organized sports. And in fact, many parents do. Nearly 3 million children play soccer in the United States. This activity promises to help children build social skills, improve athletically, and learn a sense of competition. It has been suggested, however, that the emphasis on competition and athletic skill can be counterproductive and lead children to grow tired of the game and want to quit. In many respects, it appears that children’s activities are no longer children’s activities once adults become involved and approach the games as adults rather than children. The U.S. Soccer Federation recently advised coaches to reduce the amount of drilling engaged during practice and allow children to play more freely and choose their own positions. The hope is that this will build on their love of the game and foster their natural talents.

What you’ll learn to do: explain changes and advances in cognitive development during middle childhood

A boy shown deep in thought

Children in middle childhood are beginning a new experience—that of formal education. In the United States, formal education begins at a time when children begin to think in new and more sophisticated ways. According to Piaget, the child is entering a new stage of cognitive development where they are improving their logical skills. During middle childhood, children also make improvements in short-term and long-term memory.

  • Describe key characteristics of Piaget’s concrete operational intelligence
  • Explain the information processing theory of memory
  • Describe language development in middle childhood

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Concrete Operational Thought

Iraqi girl in headscarf sits with a laptop.

According to Piaget, children in early childhood are in the preoperational stage of development in which they learn to think symbolically about the world. From ages 7 to 11, the school-aged child continues to develop in what Piaget referred to as the concrete operational stage of cognitive development . This involves mastering the use of logic in concrete ways. The child can use logic to solve problems tied to their own direct experience but has trouble solving hypothetical problems or considering more abstract problems. The child uses inductive reasoning, thinking that the world reflects one’s personal experience. For example, a child has one friend who is rude, another friend who is also rude, and the same is true for a third friend. Using inductive reasoning, the child may conclude that friends are rude. (We will see that this way of thinking tends to change during adolescence as children begin to use deductive reasoning effectively.)

The word concrete refers to that which is tangible; that which can be seen or touched or experienced directly. The concrete operational child is able to make use of logical principles in solving problems involving the physical world. For example, the child can understand the principles of cause and effect, size, and distance.

As children’s experiences and vocabularies grow, they build schema and are able to classify objects in many different ways. Classification can include new ways of arranging, categorizing, or creating classes of information. Many psychological theorists, including Piaget, believe that classification involves a hierarchical structure, such that information is organized from very broad categories to very specific items.

One feature of concrete operational thought is the understanding that objects have an identity or qualities that do not change even if the object is altered in some way. For instance, the mass of an object does not change by rearranging it. A piece of chalk is still chalk even when the piece is broken in two.

During middle childhood, children also understand the concept of reversibility , or that some things that have been changed can be returned to their original state. Water can be frozen and then thawed to become liquid again. But eggs cannot be unscrambled. Arithmetic operations are also reversible: 2 + 3 = 5 and 5 – 3 = 2. Many of these cognitive skills are incorporated into the school’s curriculum through mathematical problems and in worksheets about which situations are reversible or irreversible. (If you have access to children’s school papers, look for examples.)

Remember the example from the earlier module of children thinking that a tall beaker filled with 8 ounces of water was “more” than a short, wide bowl filled with 8 ounces of water? Concrete operational children can understand the concept of reciprocity which means that changing one quality (in this example, height or water level) can be compensated for by changes in another quality (width). So there is the same amount of water in each container, although one is taller and narrower and the other is shorter and wider.

These new cognitive skills increase the child’s understanding of the physical world. Operational or logical thought about the abstract world comes later.

Information Processing Theory

Information processing theory is a classic theory of memory that compares the way in which the mind works to computer storing, processing, and retrieving information. According to the theory, there are three levels of memory:

1) Sensory memory:  Information first enters our sensory memory (sometimes called sensory register). Stop reading and look around the room very quickly. (Yes, really. Do it!) Okay. What do you remember? Chances are, not much, even though EVERYTHING you saw and heard entered into your sensory memory. And although you might have heard yourself sigh, caught a glimpse of your dog walking across the room, and smelled the soup on the stove, you may not have registered those sensations. Sensations are continuously coming into our brains, and yet most of these sensations are never really perceived or stored in our minds. They are lost after a few seconds because they were immediately filtered out as irrelevant. If the information is not perceived or stored, it is discarded quickly.

2)  Working memory  (short-term memory): If information is meaningful (either because it reminds us of something else or because we must remember it for something like a history test we will be taking in 5 minutes), it moves from sensory memory into our working memory. The process by which this happens is not entirely clear. Working memory consists of information that we are immediately and consciously aware of. All of the things on your mind at this moment are part of your working memory.

A limited amount of information can be kept in the working memory at any given time. For most people, this is somewhere around 7 + or – 2 pieces or chunks of information. If you are given too much information at a time, you may lose some of it. (Have you ever been writing down notes in a class and the instructor speaks too quickly for you to get it all in your notes? You are trying to get it down and out of your working memory to make room for new information and if you cannot “dump” that information onto your paper and out of your mind quickly enough, you lose what has been said.)

Rehearsal can help you maintain information in your working memory, but the process by which information moves from working memory into long term memory seems to rely on more than simple rehearsal.  Information in our working memory must be stored in an effective way in order to be accessible to us for later use. It is stored in our long-term memory or knowledge base.

3) Long-term memory (knowledge base): This level of memory has an unlimited capacity and stores information for days, months, or years. It consists of things that we know of or can remember if asked. This is where you want the information to ultimately be stored. The important thing to remember about storage is that it must be done in a meaningful or effective way. In other words, if you simply try to repeat something several times in order to remember it, you may only be able to remember the sound of the word rather than the meaning of the concept. So if you are asked to explain the meaning of the word or to apply a concept in some way, you will be lost. Studying involves organizing information in a meaningful way for later retrieval. Passively reading a text is usually inadequate and should be thought of as the first step in learning material. Writing keywords, thinking of examples to illustrate their meaning, and considering ways that concepts are related are all techniques helpful for organizing information for effective storage and later retrieval.

During middle childhood, children are able to learn and remember due to an improvement in the ways they attend to and store information. As children enter school and learn more about the world, they develop more categories for concepts and learn more efficient strategies for storing and retrieving information. One significant reason is that they continue to have more experiences on which to tie new information. New experiences are similar to old ones or remind the child of something else about which they know. This helps them file away new experiences more easily.

Children in middle childhood also have a better understanding of how well they are performing on a task and the level of difficulty of a task. As they become more realistic about their abilities, they can adapt studying strategies to meet those needs. While preschoolers may spend as much time on an unimportant aspect of a problem as they do on the main point, school-aged children start to learn to prioritize and gauge what is significant and what is not. They develop metacognition or the ability to understand the best way to figure out a problem. They gain more tools and strategies (such as “i before e except after c” so they know that “receive” is correct but “recieve” is not.)

Language Development

One of the reasons that children can classify objects in so many ways is that they have acquired a vocabulary to do so. By 5th grade, a child’s vocabulary has grown to 40,000 words. It grows at the rate of 20 words per day, a rate that exceeds that of preschoolers. This language explosion, however, differs from that of preschoolers because it is facilitated by associating new words with those already known (fast-mapping) and because it is accompanied by a more sophisticated understanding of the meanings of a word.

A child in middle childhood can also think of objects in less literal ways. For example, if asked for the first word that comes to mind when one hears the word “pizza”, the preschooler is likely to say “eat” or some word that describes what is done with a pizza. However, the school-aged child is likelier to place pizza in the appropriate category and say “food” or “carbohydrate”.

This sophistication of vocabulary is also evidenced in the fact that school-aged children are able to tell jokes and delight in doing so. They may use jokes that involve plays on words such as “knock-knock” jokes or jokes with punch lines. Preschoolers do not understand plays on words and rely on telling “jokes” that are literal or slapstick such as “A man fell down in the mud! Isn’t that funny?”

Grammar and Flexibility

School-aged children can also learn new grammar rules with more flexibility. While preschoolers are likely to be reluctant to give up saying “I goed there”, school-aged children will learn this rather quickly along with other rules of grammar.

While the preschool years might be a good time to learn a second language (being able to understand and speak the language), the school years may be the best time to be taught a second language (the rules of grammar).

What you’ll learn to do: explain emotional, social, and moral development during middle childhood

A girl whispering into another girl's ear

Children in middle childhood are starting to make friends in more sophisticated ways. They choose friends for specific characteristics, including shared interests, a sense of humor, and being a good person. That is quite a departure from the earlier days of playing with the people in your group just because they are there. Children in middle childhood are starting to realize that friendships have benefits, and there are sometimes difficulties. In this section, we’ll examine some aspects of these relationships.

Learning outcomes

  • Examine Erikson’s stage of industry vs. inferiority as it relates to middle childhood
  • Describe the importance of peer relationships to middle childhood
  • Understand Kohlberg’s theory on preconventional, conventional, and postconventional moral development
  • Examine short term-and long term consequences of divorce on children
  • Describe issues regarding sexual abuse and children

Psychodynamic and Psychosocial Theories of Middle Childhood

Now let’s turn our attention to concerns related to social development, self-concept, the world of friendships, and family life. During middle childhood, children are likely to show more independence from their parents and family, think more about the future, understand more about their place in the world, pay more attention to friendships, and want to be accepted by their peers.

Freud’s Psychosexual Development: The Latency Stage

Freud’s theory .

Remember that Freud’s theory of psychosexual development suggests that children develop their personality through a series of psychosexual stages. In each stage, the erogenous zone is the source of the libidinal energy. So far we have seen the oral stage (ages birth – 18 months), the anal stage (ages 18 months – 3 years), and the phallic stage (ages 3 years – 6 years).

During middle childhood (6-11), the child enters the latency stage, focusing their attention outside the family and toward friendships. Freud’s fourth stage of psychosexual development is the latency stage. This stage begins around age 6 and lasts until puberty. The biological drives are temporarily quieted (latent) and the child can direct attention to a larger world of friends. If the child is able to make friends, they will gain a sense of confidence. If not, the child may continue to be a loner or shy away from others, even as an adult.

In the latency stage, children are actually doing very little psychosexual developing according to Freud. Where pleasure and development occurred through erogenous zones in the first 3 stages, in the latency stage all pleasure from erogenous zones is repressed. In other words, it is latent—hence the stage’s name. Freud believed that in the latency stage all development and stimulation come from secondary sources since the erogenous forces are repressed. These secondary sources can include education, forming various social relationships, and hobbies.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Development: Industry vs. Inferiority (Competence)

As we have seen in previous modules, Erikson believes that children’s greatest source of personality development comes from their social relationships. So far, we have seen 3 psychosocial stages: trust versus mistrust (ages birth – 18 months), autonomy versus shame and doubt (ages 18 months – 3 years), and initiative versus guilt (ages 3 years – around 6 years).

During the elementary school stage (ages 7–12), children face the task of industry vs. inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that they don’t measure up. If children do not learn to get along with others or have negative experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and adulthood.

According to Erikson, children in middle childhood are very busy or industrious. They are constantly doing, planning, playing, getting together with friends, and achieving. This is a very active time and a time when they are gaining a sense of how they measure up when compared with friends. Erikson believed that if these industrious children view themselves as successful in their endeavors, they will get a sense of competence for future challenges. If instead, a child feels that they are not measuring up to their peers, feelings of inferiority and self-doubt will develop. According to Erikson, these feelings of inferiority can lead to an inferiority complex that lasts into adulthood.

To help children have a successful resolution in this stage, they should be encouraged to explore their abilities. They should be given authentic feedback as well. Failure is not necessarily a horrible thing according to Erikson. Indeed, failure is a type of feedback that may help a child form a sense of modesty. A balance of competence and modesty is ideal for creating a sense of competence in the child.

Self-Concept

Children in middle childhood have a more realistic sense of self than do those in early childhood. That exaggerated sense of self as “biggest” or “smartest” or “tallest” gives way to an understanding of one’s strengths and weaknesses. This can be attributed to greater experience in comparing one’s own performance with that of others and to greater cognitive flexibility. A child’s self-concept can be influenced by peers, family, teachers, and the messages they send about a child’s worth. Contemporary children also receive messages from the media about how they should look and act.  Movies, music videos, the internet, and advertisers can all create cultural images of what is desirable or undesirable and this too can influence a child’s self-concept.

The pre-adolescent, or tween, age range of roughly 9-12 is a major force in the marketing world. This group has a spending power of $200 billion, and are primarily targeted as consumers of media, clothing, and products that make them look “cool” and feel independent. This market came under heavy fire a few years ago for being overly sexualized, which led to the creation of a task force by the American Psychological Association to learn more—their findings and recommendations to reduce this problem can be accessed here.

The Society of Children

Friendships during middle childhood take on new importance as judges of one’s worth, competence, and attractiveness. Friendships provide the opportunity for learning social skills such as how to communicate with others and how to negotiate differences. Children get ideas from one another about how to perform certain tasks, how to gain popularity, what to wear, what to say, what to listen to, and how to act. This society of children marks a transition from a life focused on the family to a life concerned with peers.  In peer relationships, children learn how to initiate and maintain social interactions with other children. They learn skills for managing conflict, such as turn-taking, compromise, and bargaining. Play and communication also involve the mutual, sometimes complex, coordination of goals, actions, and understanding.

Social Comparison and Bullying

However, peer relationships can be challenging as well as supportive (Rubin, Coplan, Chen, Bowker, & McDonald, 2011). Being accepted by other children is an important source of affirmation and self-esteem, but peer rejection can foreshadow later behavior problems (especially when children are rejected due to aggressive behavior). With increasing age, children confront the challenges of bullying, peer victimization, and managing conformity pressures.

Social comparison with peers is an important means by which children evaluate their skills, knowledge, and personal qualities, but it may cause them to feel that they do not measure up well against others. For example, a boy who is not athletic may feel unworthy of his football-playing peers and revert to shy behavior, isolating himself, and avoiding conversation. Conversely, an athlete who doesn’t “get” Shakespeare may feel embarrassed and avoid reading altogether.

Most children want to be liked and accepted by their friends. Some popular children are nice and have good social skills. These  popular-prosocial  children tend to do well in school and are cooperative and friendly.  Popular-antisocial  children may gain popularity by acting tough or spreading rumors about others (Cillessen & Mayeux, 2004). Rejected children are sometimes excluded because they are shy and withdrawn. The  withdrawn-rejected  children are easy targets for bullies because they are unlikely to retaliate when belittled (Boulton, 1999). Other rejected children are ostracized because they are aggressive, loud, and confrontational. The  aggressive-rejected  children may be acting out of a feeling of insecurity. Unfortunately, their fear of rejection only leads to behavior that brings further rejection from other children. Children who are not accepted are more likely to experience conflict, lack confidence, and have trouble adjusting. Other categories in the most commonly used sociometric system, developed by Coie & Dodge, includes neglected children, who tend to go unnoticed but are not especially liked or disliked by their peers; average children, who receive an average number of positive and negative votes from their peers, or controversial children, who may be strongly liked and disliked by quite a few peers.

Also, with the approach of adolescence, peer relationships become focused on psychological intimacy, involving personal disclosure, vulnerability, and loyalty (or its betrayal)—which significantly affects a child’s outlook on the world. Each of these aspects of peer relationships requires developing very different social and emotional skills than those that emerge in parent-child relationships. They also illustrate the many ways that peer relationships influence the growth of personality and self-concept.

Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg (1963) built on the work of Piaget and was interested in finding out how our moral reasoning changes as we get older. He wanted to find out how people decide what is right and what is wrong. In order to explore this area, he read a story containing a moral dilemma to boys of different age groups (also known as the Heinz dilemma). In the story, a man is trying to obtain an expensive drug that his wife needs in order to treat her cancer. The man has no money and no one will loan him the money he requires. He begs the pharmacist to reduce the price, but the pharmacist refuses. So, the man decides to break into the pharmacy to steal the drug. Then Kohlberg asked the children to decide whether the man was right or wrong in his choice. Kohlberg was not interested in whether they said the man was right or wrong, he was interested in finding out how they arrived at such a decision. He wanted to know what they thought made something right or wrong.

Pre-conventional Moral Development

The youngest subjects seemed to answer based on what would happen to the man as a result of the act. For example, they might say the man should not break into the pharmacy because the pharmacist might find him and beat him, or they might say that the man should break in and steal the drug and his wife will give him a big kiss. Right or wrong, both decisions were based on what would physically happen to the man as a result of the act. This is a self-centered approach to moral decision-making. He called this most superficial understanding of right and wrong pre-conventional moral development.

Pre-conventional development covers stages one and two in Kohlberg’s theory. In stage one, the focus is on the direct consequences of their actions. Their main concern is avoiding punishment and being obedient. In stage two, the focus is more “what’s in it for me”? A stage two mentality is self-interest driven.

Conventional Moral Development

Middle childhood boys seemed to base their answers on what other people would think of the man as a result of his act. For instance, they might say he should break into the store, and then everyone would think he was a good husband. Or, he shouldn’t because it is against the law. In either case, right and wrong are determined by what other people think. Because what other people think is usually a function of socially accepted morality, this view is often thought of as applying society’s standards. A good decision is one that gains the approval of others or one that complies with the law. This is conventional moral development.

The conventional moral development covers stages three and four. In stage three, the focus is on what society deems okay or good in order to gain approval from others. In stage four, the focus is on maintaining social order. The person has an understanding that laws and social conventions are created to maintain a properly functioning society.

Post-conventional Moral Development

Older children were the only ones to appreciate the fact that the Heinz dilemma has different levels of right and wrong. Right and wrong are based on social contracts established for the good of everyone or on universal principles of right and wrong that transcend the self and social convention. For example, the man should break into the store because, even if it is against the law, the wife needs the drug and her life is more important than the consequences the man might face for breaking the law. Or, the man should not violate the principle of the right of property because this rule is essential for social order. In either case, the person’s judgment goes beyond what happens to the self. It is based on a concern for others, for society as a whole, or for an ethical standard rather than a legal standard. This level is called post-conventional moral development because it goes beyond convention or what other people think to a higher, universal ethical principle of conduct that may or may not be reflected in the law. Notice that such thinking (the kind supreme justices do all day in deliberating whether a law is moral or ethical, etc.) requires being able to think abstractly. Often this is not accomplished until a person reaches adolescence or adulthood.

Post-conventional moral development covers stages five and six. In stage five, the person realizes that not everything is black and white. The person realizes there are many different ways of thinking about what is good and right. Further, just because there is a law does not mean that the law is necessarily good for everyone. In stage five, the idea is to do the most good for the most people. Kohlberg’s sixth stage is interesting in that it does not seem that people make it to this stage and stay. Indeed, many researchers have failed to identify people who operate within a stage six mentality at all, while others have identified a very few people who operate within stage six on occasion. Why might this be the case? Stage six is a way of thinking about the question of morality in a way that is not personal. Instead, a person tries to empathize with others and see the world from the other person’s perspective before making a decision. While this sounds easy, very few people can do this well, and even fewer can do it consistently. Further, the idea of universal justice is involved in stage six. Indeed, a person in stage six is ready to disobey unjust laws. The focus is on doing the right thing, regardless of the personal consequences.

The Heinz dilemma is a frequently used example used to help us understand Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. It is described in the following video :

From a theoretical point of view, it is not important what the participant thinks that Heinz should do. Kohlberg’s theory holds that the justification the participant offers is what is significant, the form of their response. Below are some of many examples of possible arguments that belong to the six stages:

Modern Views of Moral Development

Kohlberg continued to explore his theory after the initial theory was researched. He theorized that there could be other stages and that there could be transitions into each stage. One thing that Kohlberg never fully addressed was his use of nearly all-male samples. Men and women tend to have very different styles of moral decision making; men tend to be very justice-oriented while women tend to be more compassion oriented. In terms of Kohlberg’s stages, women tend to be in lower stages than men because of their compassion orientation.

Carol Gilligan was one of Kohlberg’s research assistants. She believed that Kohlberg’s theory was inherently biased against women. Gilligan suggests that the biggest reason that there is a gender bias in Kohlberg’s theory is because males tend to focus on logic and rules while women focus on caring for others and relationships. She suggests, then, that in order to truly measure women’s moral development, it was necessary to create a measure specifically for women. Gilligan was clear that she did not believe neither male nor female moral development was better, but rather that they were equally important.

Think It Over

Consider your own decision-making processes. What guides your decisions? Are you primarily concerned with your personal well-being? Do you make choices based on what other people will think about your decision? Or are you guided by other principles? To what extent is this approach guided by your culture?

Stressors in Middle Childhood

Family life.

Three smiling girls posing with peace signs for a picture.

During middle childhood, children spend less time with parents and more time with their peers. Parents may have to modify their approach to parenting to accommodate the child’s growing independence. Authoritative parenting which uses reason and joint decision-making whenever possible may be the most effective approach (Berk, 2007). A more harsh form of parenting, authoritarian parenting, uses strict discipline, and focuses on obedience. Asian-American, African-American, and Mexican-American parents are more likely than European-Americans to use an authoritarian style of parenting. Children raised in authoritative households tend to be confident, successful, and happy (Chao, 2001; Stewart and Bond, 2002).

Family Tasks

One of the ways to assess the quality of family life is to consider the tasks of families.

Berger (2005) lists five family functions:

  • Providing food, clothing, and shelter
  • Encouraging Learning
  • Developing self-esteem
  • Nurturing friendships with peers
  • Providing harmony and stability

Notice that in addition to providing food, shelter, and clothing, families are responsible for helping the child learn, relate to others, and have a confident sense of self. The family provides a harmonious and stable environment for living. A good home environment is one in which the child’s physical, cognitive, emotional, and social needs are adequately met. Sometimes families emphasize physical needs but ignore cognitive or emotional needs. Other times, families pay close attention to physical needs and academic requirements but may fail to nurture the child’s friendships with peers or guide the child toward developing healthy relationships. Parents might want to consider how it feels to live in the household. Is it stressful and conflict-ridden? Is it a place where family members enjoy being?

Family Change: Divorce

A lot of attention has been given to the impact of divorce on the life of children. The assumption has been that divorce has a strong, negative impact on the child and that single-parent families are deficient in some way. Research suggests 75-80 percent of children and adults who experience divorce suffer no long term effects (Hetherington & Kelly, 2002). Children of divorce and children who have not experienced divorce are more similar than different (Hetherington & Kelly, 2002).

Mintz (2004) suggests that the alarmist view of divorce was due in part to the newness of divorce when rates in the United States began to climb in the late 1970s. Adults reacting to the change grew up in the 1950s when rates were low. As divorce has become more common and there is less stigma associated with divorce, this view has changed somewhat. Social scientists have operated from the divorce as a deficit model emphasizing the problems of being from a “broken home” (Seccombe &Warner, 2004). More recently, a more objective view of divorce, re-partnering, and remarriage indicate that divorce, remarriage, and life in stepfamilies can have a variety of effects. The exaggeration of the negative consequences of divorce has left the majority of those who do well hidden and subjected them to unnecessary stigma and social disapproval (Hetherington & Kelly, 2002).

The tasks of families listed above are functions that can be fulfilled in a variety of family types-not just intact, two-parent households. Harmony and stability can be achieved in many family forms and when it is disrupted, either through a divorce, or efforts to blend families, or any other circumstances, the child suffers (Hetherington & Kelly, 2002).

Factors Affecting the Impact of Divorce

Keep these family functions in mind as well as the consequences (both pro and con) of divorce and remarriage on children. Some negative consequences result from financial hardship rather than divorce per se (Drexler, 2005). Some positive consequences reflect improvements in meeting these functions. For instance, we have learned that positive self-esteem comes partly from a belief in the self and one’s abilities rather than merely being complemented by others. In single-parent homes, children may be given more opportunity to discover their own abilities and gain the independence that fosters self-esteem. If divorce leads to fighting between the parents and the child is included in these arguments, the self-esteem may suffer.

The impact of divorce on children depends on a number of factors. The degree of conflict before the divorce plays a role. If the divorce reduces tensions, the child may feel relief. If the parents have kept their conflicts hidden, the announcement of a divorce can come as a shock and be met with enormous resentment. Another factor that has a great impact on the child concerns financial hardships they may suffer, especially if financial support is inadequate. Another difficult situation for children of divorce is the position they are put into if the parents continue to argue and fight-especially if they bring the children into those arguments.

Short-term consequences : In roughly the first year following divorce, children may exhibit some of these short-term effects:

  • Grief over losses suffered . The child will grieve the loss of the parent they no longer see as frequently. The child may also grieve about other family members that are no longer available. Grief sometimes comes in the form of sadness, but it can also be experienced as anger or withdrawal. Preschool-aged boys may act out aggressively, while the same-aged girls may become quieter and withdrawn. Older children may feel depressed.
  • Reduced Standard of Living . Divorce often means changing the amount of money coming into the household. Children experience new constraints on spending or entertainment. School-aged children, especially, may notice that they can no longer have toys, clothing, or other items to which they’ve grown accustomed. The custodial parent may experience stress at not being able to rely on child support payments or having the same income level as before. This can affect decisions regarding healthcare, vacations, rents, mortgages, and other expenditures. The stress can result in less happiness and relaxation in the home. The parent taking on more work may also be less available to the children.
  • Adjusting to Transitions . Children may also have to adjust to other changes accompanying a divorce. The divorce might mean moving to a new home and changing schools or friends. It might mean leaving a neighborhood that has meant a lot to them as well.

Long-Term consequences : The following are some effects found after the first year of a divorce:

  • Economic/Occupational Status . One of the most commonly cited long-term effects of divorce is that children of divorce may have lower levels of education or occupational status. This may be a consequence of lower-income and resources for funding education rather than to divorce per se. In those households where economic hardship does not occur, there may be no impact on education or occupational status (Drexler, 2005).
  • Improved Relationships with the Custodial Parent (usually the mother): The majority of custodial parents are mothers (approximately 80.4 percent) and 19.6 percent of custodial parents are fathers. Shared custody is on the rise, however, and shows promising social, academic, and psychological results for the children.   Children from single-parent families talk to their mothers more often than children of two-parent families (McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994). Most children of divorce lead happy, well-adjusted lives and develop stronger, positive relationships with their custodial parent (Seccombe and Warner, 2004). In a study of college-age respondents, Arditti (1999) found that increasing closeness and a movement toward more democratic parenting styles was experienced. Others have also found that relationships between mothers and children become closer and stronger (Guttman, 1993) and suggest that greater equality and less rigid parenting is beneficial after divorce (Steward, Copeland, Chester, Malley, and Barenbaum, 1997).
  • Greater emotional independence in sons . Drexler (2005) notes that sons who are raised by mothers only develop an emotional sensitivity to others that is beneficial in relationships.
  • Feeling more anxious in their own love relationships. Children of divorce may feel more anxious about their own relationships as adults. This may reflect a fear of divorce if things go wrong, or it may be a result of setting higher expectations for their own relationships.
  • Adjustment of the custodial parent . Furstenberg and Cherlin (1991) believe that the primary factor influencing how children adjust to divorce is how the custodial parent adjusts to the divorce. If that parent is adjusting well, the children will benefit. This may explain a good deal of the variation we find in children of divorce. Adults going through divorce should consider good self-care as beneficial to the children-not as self-indulgent.
  • Mental health issues : Some studies suggest that anxiety and depression that are common in children and adults within the first year of divorce may actually not resolve. A 15-year study by Bohman, Låftman, Päären, Jonsson (2017) suggests that parental separation significantly increases the risk for depression 15 years later when depression rates were compared to matched controls. In fact, the risk of depression was related more strongly with parental conflict and parental separation than it was with parental depression!

Sexual Abuse in Middle Childhood

Researchers estimate that 1 out of 4 girls and 1 out of 10 boys have been sexually abused (Valente, 2005). The median age for sexual abuse is 8 or 9 years for both boys and girls (Finkelhor et. al. 1990). Most boys and girls are sexually abused by a male. Childhood sexual abuse is defined as any sexual contact between a child and an adult or a much older child. Incest refers to sexual contact between a child and family members. In each of these cases, the child is exploited by an older person without regard for the child’s developmental immaturity and inability to understand the sexual behavior (Steele, 1986).

Although rates of sexual abuse are higher for girls than for boys, boys may be less likely to report abuse because of the cultural expectation that boys should be able to take care of themselves and because of the stigma attached to homosexual encounters (Finkelhor et. al. 1990). Girls are more likely to be victims of incest and boys are more likely to be abused by someone outside the family. Sexual abuse can create feelings of self-blame, betrayal, and feelings of shame and guilt (Valente, 2005). Sexual abuse is particularly damaging when the perpetrator is someone the child trusts. Victims of sexual abuse may suffer from depression, anxiety, problems with intimacy, and suicide (Valente, 2005). Sexual abuse has additional impacts as well. Studies suggest that children who have been sexually abused have an increased risk of eating disorders and sleep disturbances Further, sexual abuse can lead to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.

Being sexually abused as a child can have a powerful impact on self-concept. The concept of  false self-training  (Davis, 1999) refers to holding a child to adult standards while denying the child’s developmental needs. Sexual abuse is just one example of false self-training. Children are held to adult standards of desirableness and sexuality while their cognitive, psychological, and emotional immaturity level is ignored. Consider how confusing it might be for a 9-year-old girl who has physically matured early to be thought of as a potential sex partner. Her cognitive, psychological, and emotional state do not equip her to make decisions about sexuality or, perhaps, to know that she can say no to sexual advances. She may feel like a 9-year-old in all ways and be embarrassed and ashamed of her physical development. Girls who mature early have problems with low self-esteem because of the failure of others (family members, teachers, ministers, peers, advertisers, and others) to recognize and respect their developmental needs. Overall, youth are more likely to be victimized because they do not have control over their contact with offenders (parents, babysitters, etc.) and have no means of escape (Finkelhor and Dzuiba-Leatherman, in Davis, 1999).

What you’ll learn to do: examine common learning disabilities and other factors related to education during middle childhood

Across the world, by the time a child is entering middle childhood, they are being educated in some form or fashion. In western society, most children are enrolled in a formal education program by the time they are in middle childhood. That said, what children learn within that formal education program varies greatly across cultures. Further, most programs are set-up for typically developing children, but they may not be set-up to handle children who are accelerated learners or children with learning disabilities. In this section, we’ll take a look at some of these educational differences and developments, as well as struggles and learning difficulties during middle childhood.

  • Evaluate the impact of labeling on children’s self-concept and social relationships
  • Describe autism spectrum disorder s
  • Identify common learning disabilities such as dyslexia and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
  • Compare Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences and Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence
  • Apply the ecological systems model to explore children’s experiences in schools

Developmental Disorders and Learning Disabilities

Girl screaming with anger and frustration as she works on some homework.

Children’s cognitive and social skills are evaluated as they enter and progress through school. Sometimes this evaluation indicates that a child needs special assistance with language or in learning how to interact with others. Evaluation and diagnosis of a child can be the first step in helping to provide that child with the type of instruction and resources needed. But diagnosis and labeling also have social implications. It is important to consider that children can be misdiagnosed and that once a child has received a diagnostic label, the child, teachers, and family members may tend to interpret the actions of the child through that label. The label can also influence the child’s self-concept. Consider, for example, a child who is misdiagnosed as learning disabled. That child may expect to have difficulties in school, lack confidence, and out of these expectations, have trouble indeed. This self-fulfilling prophecy , or tendency to act in such a way as to make what you predict will happen, comes true, calls our attention to the power that labels can have whether or not they are accurately applied.

It is also important to consider that children’s difficulties can change over time; a child who has problems in school may improve later or may live under circumstances as an adult where the problem (such as a delay in math skills or reading skills) is no longer relevant. That person, however, will still have a label as learning disabled. It should be recognized that the distinction between abnormal and normal behavior is not always clear; some abnormal behavior in children is fairly common. Misdiagnosis may be more of a concern when evaluating learning difficulties than in cases of autism spectrum disorder where unusual behaviors are clear and consistent.

Keeping these cautionary considerations in mind, let’s turn our attention to some developmental and learning difficulties.

Think It Over: Disability Inclusion

Some disabilities are very apparent and such as a person being in a wheelchair.  However, there are also many invisible disabilities that may not be apparent went first looking at a person. How would you react to seeing a person with a disability? How would you interact with them? It is important to remember that children will model the behavior that they see. We must actively teach children about disability inclusion and how to treat people with all abilities with respect.  Watch this video of a mom who has a daughter with special needs talk about her 5 Tips for disability inclusion .

Autism Spectrum Disorder s

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disorder that affects communication and behavior. The estimate published by the Center for Disease Control (2018)[ is that about 1 out of every 59 children in the United States has been diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), which covers a wide variety of ranges in ability, from those with milder forms (formerly known as Asperger’s Syndrome) to more severe deficits in communication.

Link to Learning

Learn more about Autism Spectrum Disorders at  Autism Speaks, or the Autistic Self Advocacy Network .

A person with autism has difficulty with and a lack of interest in learning language. An autistic child may respond to a question by repeating the question or might rarely speak. Sometimes autistic children learn more difficult words before simple words or can complete complicated tasks before they can complete easier ones. The person often has difficulty reading social cues such as the meanings of non-verbal gestures such as a wave of the hand or the emotion associated with a frown. Intense sensitivity to touch or visual stimulation may also be experienced. Autistic children often have poor social skills and cannot communicate with or empathize with others emotionally. People with autism often view the world differently and learn differently than people who do not have autism. Autistic children tend to prefer routines and patterns and become upset when routines are altered. For example, moving the furniture or changing the daily schedule can be very upsetting.

Many children with ASD are not identified until they reach school age, although our ability to diagnose children earlier continues to improve. In the 2017-2018 school year, about 710,000 children on the spectrum received special education through the public schools. These disorders are found in all racial and ethnic groups and are more common in boys than in girls. All these disorders are marked by difficulty in social interactions, problems in various areas of communication, and difficulty altering patterns or daily routines. There is no single cause of ASD and the causes of these disorders are to a large extent, unknown. In cases involving identical twins, if one twin has autism, the other is also autistic about 75 percent of the time. Rubella, fragile X syndrome and PKU that have been untreated are some of the medical conditions associated with risks of autism.

Some individuals benefit from medications that alleviate some of the symptoms of ASD, but the most effective treatments involve behavioral intervention and teaching techniques used to promote the development of language and social skills. Children also excel when they are in structured learning environments that accommodate the needs of children on the spectrum.

Impaired Theory of Mind in Individuals with Autism

People with autism or an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) typically show an impaired ability to recognize other people’s minds. Under the DSM-5, autism is characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction across multiple contexts and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. These deficits are present in early childhood, typically before age three, and lead to clinically significant functional impairment. Symptoms may include lack of social or emotional reciprocity, stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language, and persistent preoccupation with unusual objects.

About half of parents of children with ASD notice their child’s unusual behaviors by age 18 months, and about four-fifths notice by age 24 months, but often a diagnosis comes later, and individual cases vary significantly. Typical early signs of autism include:

  • No babbling by 12 months.
  • No gesturing (pointing, waving, etc.) by 12 months.
  • No single words by 16 months.
  • No two-word (spontaneous, not just echolalic) phrases by 24 months.
  • Loss of any language or social skills, at any age.

Children with ASD experience difficulties explaining and predicting other people’s behavior, leading to problems in social communication and interaction. Children who are diagnosed with an autistic spectrum disorder usually develop the theory of mind more slowly than other children and continue to have difficulties with it throughout their lives.

The Sally-Anne test is performed to test whether someone lacks the theory of mind. The child sees the following story: Sally and Anne are playing. Sally puts her ball into a basket and leaves the room. While Sally is gone, Anne moves the ball from the basket to the box. Now Sally returns. The question is: where will Sally look for her ball? The test is passed if the child correctly assumes that Sally will look in the basket. The test is failed if the child thinks that Sally will look in the box. Children younger than four and older children with autism will generally say that Sally will look in the box.

CONNECT THE CONCEPTS: Emotional Expression and Emotion Regulation

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a set of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by repetitive behaviors, communication, and social problems. Children who have autism spectrum disorders have difficulty recognizing the emotional states of others, and research has shown that this may stem from an inability to distinguish various nonverbal expressions of emotion (i.e., facial expressions) from one another (Hobson, 1986). In addition, there is evidence to suggest that autistic individuals also have difficulty expressing emotion through tone of voice and by producing facial expressions (Macdonald et al., 1989). Difficulties with emotional recognition and expression may contribute to the impaired social interaction and communication that characterize autism; therefore, various therapeutic approaches have been explored to address these difficulties. Various educational curricula, cognitive-behavioral and pharmacological therapies have shown some promise in helping autistic individuals process emotionally relevant information (Bauminger, 2002; Golan & Baron-Cohen, 2006; Guastella et al., 2010).

Emotion regulation describes how people respond to situations and experiences by modifying their emotional experiences and expressions. Covert emotion regulation strategies are those that occur within the individual, while overt strategies involve others or actions (such as seeking advice or consuming alcohol). Aldao and Dixon (2014) studied the relationship between overt emotional regulation strategies and psychopathology. They researched how 218 undergraduate students reported their use of covert and overt strategies and their reported symptoms associated with selected mental disorders and found that overt emotional regulation strategies were better predictors of psychopathology than covert strategies. Another study examined the relationship between pregaming (the act of drinking heavily before a social event) and two emotion regulation strategies to understand how these might contribute to alcohol-related problems; results suggested a relationship but a complicated one (Pederson, 2016). Further research is needed in these areas to better understand patterns of adaptive and maladaptive emotion regulation (Aldao & Dixon-Gordon, 2014).

Learning Disabilities

What is a learning disability? If a child is mentally disabled, that child is typically slow in all areas of learning. However, a child with a learning disability has problems in a specific area or with a specific task or type of activity related to education. A learning difficulty refers to a deficit in a child’s ability to perform an expected academic skill (Berger, 2005). These difficulties are identified in school because this is when children’s academic abilities are being tested, compared, and measured. Consequently, once academic testing is no longer essential in that person’s life (as when they are working rather than going to school) these disabilities may no longer be noticed or relevant, depending on the person’s job and the extent of the disability.

Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. Dyslexia is one of the most commonly diagnosed disabilities and involves having difficulty in the area of reading. This diagnosis is used for a number of reading difficulties. For example, the child may reverse letters, have difficulty reading from left to right, or have problems associating letters with sounds. Dyslexia appears to be rooted in some neurological problems involving the parts of the brain active in recognizing letters, verbally responding, or being able to manipulate sounds (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2006). Treatment typically involves altering teaching methods to accommodate the person’s particular problematic area.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder  (ADHD) is considered a neurological and behavioral disorder in which a person has difficulty staying on task, screening out distractions, and inhibiting behavioral outbursts. The most commonly recommended treatment involves the use of medication, structuring the classroom environment to keep distractions at a minimum, tutoring, and teaching parents how to set limits and encourage age-appropriate behavior (NINDS, 2006). Some people say that the term Attention Deficit is a misnomer because people who suffer from ADHD actually have great difficulty tuning things out. They are bombarded with information… their brains are trying to pay attention to everything. They do not have a deficit of attention- they are trying to pay attention to too many things at once, so everything suffers.

Recent research suggests that several brain structures may be implicated in ADHD. These studies have mainly focused on the frontal lobe and prefrontal cortex. Some studies suggest that the frontal lobe is underdeveloped in children and adults with ADHD. The frontal lobe is involved in executive function, attention, planning, impulse control, motivation, and decision-making. In some cases the development is delayed, but catches up to expected standards by adulthood; in other cases, the frontal lobe never fully develops.

link to learning

How is ADHD diagnosed? The DSM-V lists the criteria that must be present in order for a diagnosis to be made and an official diagnosis must be made by a qualified mental health professional.  It is also important to note that the term ADD is an older term that has been phased out in the newer versions of the DSM. Review the criteria for ADHD.   Do you think that making a diagnosis would be difficult?  Why or why not?

In general, ADHD is treated with stimulants. While this may seem counter-intuitive (why give a hyperactive child a stimulant?), it makes a lot of sense when you understand the neurological processes involved. There are two ways that stimulants may work to help people with ADHD focus. Some researchers have found that the stimulants activate the underdeveloped parts of the brain (prefrontal cortex and frontal lobe) thereby making these brain areas function more as they should. This allows the child or adult to focus properly. Other researchers suspect that the stimulants affect the way the neurotransmitters function in these brain areas, leading to better function in those areas.

There is still a lot of controversy about medicating children with ADHD. While there is clear evidence that medication works to control the negative effects of ADHD, there are also negative side effects that must be dealt with including problems sleeping, changes in appetite, headaches, and more. Further, the long term effects of medicating young children are not well understood. For these reasons, many parents prefer an intervention that does not involve medication. The most common non-pharmaceutical intervention for ADHD is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT). CBT works by helping children to become aware of their thought processes, and then to learn to change those thought processes to be more beneficial or positive. CBT can also help by educating parents about ways to help their children learn about self-control and discipline. There is good evidence that CBT is effective in treating ADHD. Indeed, in some studies, children treated with CBT have better long-term outcomes than children treated with medication. Some studies show that a combination of medication and CBT is most beneficial because the medication helps with behavior change more quickly, allowing for the child to learn through CBT more quickly. The CBT then helps with longer-term behavior change so that the child can stop taking medications and deal effectively with their ADHD symptoms based on what they have learned through CBT.

DIG DEEPER: Why Is the Prevalence Rate of ADHD Increasing?

Many people believe that the rates of ADHD have increased in recent years, and there is evidence to support this contention. In a recent study, investigators found that the parent-reported prevalence of ADHD among children (4–17 years old) in the United States increased by 22% during a 4-year period, from 7.8% in 2003 to 9.5% in 2007 (CDC, 2010). Over time this increase in parent-reported ADHD was observed in all sociodemographic groups and was reflected by substantial increases in 12 states (Indiana, North Carolina, and Colorado were the top three). The increases were greatest for older teens (ages 15–17), multiracial and Hispanic children, and children with a primary language other than English. Another investigation found that from 1998–2000 through 2007–2009 the parent-reported prevalence of ADHD increased among U.S. children between the ages of 5–17 years old, from 6.9% to 9.0% (Akinbami, Liu, Pastor, & Reuben, 2011).

A major weakness of both studies was that children were not formally diagnosed. Instead, parents were simply asked whether or not a doctor or other health-care provider had ever told them their child had ADHD; the reported prevalence rates thus may have been affected by the accuracy of parental memory. Nevertheless, the findings from these studies raise important questions concerning what appears to be a demonstrable rise in the prevalence of ADHD. Although the reasons underlying this apparent increase in the rates of ADHD over time are poorly understood and, at best, speculative, several explanations are viable:

  • ADHD may be over-diagnosed by doctors who are too quick to medicate children as a behavior treatment.
  • There is greater awareness of ADHD now than in the past. Nearly everyone has heard of ADHD, and most parents and teachers know its key symptoms. Thus, parents may be quick to take their children to a doctor if they believe their child possesses these symptoms, or teachers may be more likely now than in the past to notice the symptoms and refer the child for evaluation.
  • The use of computers, video games, iPhones, and other electronic devices has become pervasive among children in the early 21st century, and these devices could potentially shorten children’s attention spans. Thus, what might seem like inattention to some parents and teachers could simply reflect exposure to too much technology.
  • ADHD diagnostic criteria have changed over time.

Learning and Intelligence

Schools and testing, when should school begin.

four elementary students sit in front of computers taking a standardized test.

Children in the United States begin school around age 5 or 6. In fact, most Western countries follow this model. But WHY do we begin school at 5 or 6? For the most part, this age was chosen as a matter of convenience. In countries where the mother is expected to work, the age at which children begin school tends to be younger. That said, research does not support that children should begin formal education so early. Many research studies suggest age 7 is the most appropriate age to begin formalized school. Before age 7, children learn best through play. By age 7, most children can learn in a more formal academic-forward setting.

The Controversy Over Testing In Schools

Children’s academic performance is often measured with the use of standardized tests.  Achievement tests are used to measure what a child has already learned. Achievement tests are often used as measures of teaching effectiveness within a school setting and as a method to make schools that receive tax dollars (such as public schools, charter schools, and private schools that receive vouchers) accountable to the government for their performance. In 2001, President George W. Bush signed into effect the No Child Left Behind Act mandating that schools administer achievement tests to students and publish those results so that parents have an idea of their children’s performance and the government has information on the gaps in educational achievement between children from various social class, racial, and ethnic groups. Schools that show significant gaps in these levels of performance are to work toward narrowing these gaps. Educators have criticized the policy for focusing too much on testing as the only indication of performance levels.

Aptitude tests are designed to measure a student’s ability to learn or to determine if a person has potential in a particular program. These are often used at the beginning of a course of study or as part of college entrance requirements. The Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test (PSAT) are perhaps the most familiar aptitude tests to students in grades 6 and above. Learning test-taking skills and preparing for SATs has become part of the training that some students in these grades receive as part of their pre-college preparation. Other aptitude tests include the MCAT (Medical College Admission Test), the LSAT (Law School Admission Test), and the GRE (Graduate Record Examination). Intelligence tests are also a form of aptitude tests that are designed to measure a person’s ability to learn.

The World of School

Remember Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model we learned about when we first examined theories of development? This model helps us understand an individual by examining the contexts in which the person lives and the direct and indirect influences on that person’s life. School becomes a very important component of children’s lives during middle childhood and one way to understand children is to look at the world of school. We have discussed educational policies that impact the curriculum in schools above. Now let’s focus on the school experience from the standpoint of the student, the teacher and parent relationship, and the cultural messages or hidden curriculum taught in school in the United States.

Parents vary in their level of involvement with their children’s schools. Teachers often complain that they have difficulty getting parents to participate in their child’s education and devise a variety of techniques to keep parents in touch with daily and overall progress. For example, parents may be required to sign a behavior chart each evening to be returned to school or may be given information about the school’s events through websites and newsletters. There are other factors that need to be considered when looking at parental involvement. To explore these, first ask yourself if all parents who enter the school with concerns about their child are received in the same way? If not, what would make a teacher or principal more likely to consider the parent’s concerns? What would make this less likely?

Lareau and Horvat (2004) found that teachers seek a particular type of involvement from particular types of parents. While teachers thought they were open and neutral in their responses to parental involvement, in reality, teachers were most receptive to support, praise, and agreement coming from parents who were most similar in race and social class with the teachers. Parents who criticized the school or its policies were less likely to be given a voice. Parents who have higher levels of income, occupational status, and other qualities favored in society have family capital. This is a form of power that can be used to improve a child’s education. Parents who do not have these qualities may find it more difficult to be effectively involved.

Student Perspectives

Imagine being a 3rd-grader for one day in public school. What would the daily routine involve? To what extent would the institution dictate the day’s activities and how much of the day would you spend on those activities? Would you always be on task? What would you say if someone asked you how your day went? or “What happened in school today?” Chances are, you would be more inclined to talk about whom you sat at lunch with or who brought a puppy to class than to describe how fractions are added.

McLaren (1999) describes the student’s typical day as filled with a constrictive and unnecessary ritual that damages the desire to learn. Students move between various states as they negotiate the demands of the school system and their own personal interests. The majority of the day (298 minutes) takes place in the student state . In this state, the student focuses on a task or tries to stay focused on a task, is passive, compliant, and often frustrated. Long pauses before getting out the next book or finding materials sometimes indicate that frustration. The  street corner state is one in which the child is playful, energetic, excited, and expresses personal opinions, feelings, and beliefs. About 66 minutes a day take place in this state. Children try to maximize this by going slowly to assemblies or when getting a hall pass-always eager to say ‘hello’ to a friend or to wave if one of their classmates is in another room. This is the state in which friends talk and play. In fact, teachers sometimes reward students with opportunities to move freely or to talk or to be themselves. But when students initiate the street corner state on their own, they risk losing recess time, getting extra homework, or being ridiculed in front of their peers. The  home state  occurs when parents or siblings visit the school. Children in this state may enjoy special privileges such as going home early or being exempt from certain school rules in the mother’s presence, or it can be difficult if the parent is there to discuss trouble at school with a staff member. The  sanctity state  is a time in which the child is contemplative, quiet, or prayerful. Typically the sanctity state is a very brief part of the day.

Cultural Influences

Another way to examine the world of school is to look at the cultural values, concepts, behaviors, and roles that are part of the school experience but are not part of the formal curriculum. These are part of the  hidden curriculum  but are nevertheless very powerful messages. The hidden curriculum includes ideas of patriotism, gender roles, the ranking of occupations and classes, competition, and other values. Teachers, counselors, and other students specify and make known what is considered appropriate for girls and boys. The gender curriculum continues into high school, college, and professional school. Students learn a ranking system of occupations and social classes as well. Students in gifted programs or those moving toward college preparation classes may be viewed as superior to those who are receiving tutoring.

Gracy (2004) suggests that cultural training occurs early. Kindergarten is an “academic boot camp” in which students are prepared for their future student role-that of complying with an adult imposed structure and routine designed to produce docile, obedient, children who do not question meaningless tasks that will become so much of their future lives as students. A typical day is filled with structure, ritual, and routine that allows for little creativity or direct, hands-on contact. “Kindergarten, therefore, can be seen as preparing children not only for participation in the bureaucratic organization of large modern school systems but also for the large-scale occupational bureaucracies of modern society.” (Gracy, 2004, p. 148)

Emphasizing math and reading in preschool and kindergarten classes is becoming more common in some school districts. It is not without controversy, however. Some suggest that emphasis is warranted in order to help students learn math and reading skills that will be needed throughout school and in the world of work. This will also help school districts improve their accountability through test performance. Others argue that learning is becoming too structured to be enjoyable or effective and that students are being taught only to focus on performance and test-taking. Students learn student incivility or lack of sincere concern for politeness and consideration of others is taught in kindergarten through 12th grades through the “what is on the test” mentality modeled by teachers. Students are taught to accept routinized, meaningless information in order to perform well on tests. And they are experiencing the stress felt by teachers and school districts focused on test scores and taught that their worth comes from their test scores. Genuine interest, an appreciation of the process of learning, and valuing others are important components of success in the workplace that are not part of the hidden curriculum in today’s schools.

  • Do an online search for “kindergarten schedule” and look for a typical daily schedule. Do you think it includes a healthy amount of learning and play? Why or why not?
  • To what extent do you think that students are being prepared for their future student role? What are the pros and cons of such preparation? Look at the curriculum for kindergarten and the first few grades in your own school district.

A group of scouts walking across a field in a single-file line

Until middle childhood, the development process isn’t usually as structured as it is during middle childhood when children enter the formal education setting. Children in school are taught new ways of thinking about things that they already know—they learn why they structure sentences the way they do, and they learn new words not through hearing them from others but from lists provided by teachers or determined by committees. They are even taught how to play sports in specific ways with explicit rules that they get tested on in written form. This is quite a departure from the organic learning of younger years.

Learning in this new way is difficult for some children who have never had to sit down for formal instruction. Structured learning can also shed light on learning difficulties and learning disabilities. Educators today are trained to recognize the signs of many learning disabilities so that children can get help early on in their academic careers.

Developing social relationships in the school environment and keeping up with the changing relationships at home can be difficult tasks for children during middle childhood. Children begin the period relatively dependent on their parents. By the end of the period, children should be able to act autonomously in terms of decision-making and caring for themselves. This change may feel quick to parents, and it can be difficult for them to let go of control and to allow the child to make more decisions. In order for the child to continue healthy development, though, that gradual letting go is necessary. Parents should pay close attention to their children to recognize signs that the child can take on new responsibilities. This will help the child continue developing their skills, sense of self, sense of place in the family, and sense of place in the greater community.

Additional Supplemental Resources

  • An organization supporting autism research by providing funding and other assistance to scientists and organizations conducting, facilitating, publicizing, and disseminating autism research. The organization also provides information about autism to the general public and serves to increase awareness of autism spectrum disorders and the needs of individuals and families affected by autism.
  • There are many types of bullying, including physical, verbal, social, and cyber. With bullying affecting so many people, it is important to understand what it is and how to respond to it and prevent it. This Web site provides a plethora of resources for a variety of audiences.
  • This video on how we make memories includes information on topics such as stages of memory, mnemonics, and levels of processing. Closed captioning available.
  • This video summarizes Kohlberg’s stages of moral development.  The stages themselves are structured in three levels: Pre-Conventional, Conventional, and Post-Conventional.

What is dyslexia? – Kelli Sandman-Hurley- TEDed  

  • Dyslexia affects up to 1 in 5 people, but the experience of dyslexia isn’t always the same. This difficulty in processing language exists along a spectrum — one that doesn’t necessarily fit with labels like “normal” and “defective.” Kelli Sandman-Hurley urges us to think again about dyslexic brain function and to celebrate the neurodiversity of the human brain.

Piaget – Stage 3 – Concrete – Reversibility  

  • Does this child understand the concept of reversibility?  Which stage would that put her in?

Egocentrism  

  • The Three Mountain Problem was devised by Piaget to test whether a child’s thinking was egocentric,  which was also a helpful indicator of whether the child was in the preoperational stage or the concrete operational stage of cognitive development. Which stage are these children in?

ADHD at School  

  • ADHD stands for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and is considered a mental disorder. Children with ADHD have trouble paying attention, are hyperactive, and have difficulty controlling their behavior. To understand how it affects children in school, let’s look at the story of Leo, a 12-year-old boy who is going to school with the best intentions, but is struggling hard to succeed.
  • Temple Grandin, diagnosed with autism as a child, talks about how her mind works — sharing her ability to “think in pictures,” which helps her solve problems that neurotypical brains might miss. She makes the case that the world needs people on the autism spectrum: visual thinkers, pattern thinkers, verbal thinkers, and all kinds of smart geeky kids.

Lifespan Development Copyright © 2020 by Julie Lazzara is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Chapter 6: Middle Childhood

Lecture: middle childhood.

Lecture Transcript

Now we turn our attention to middle childhood. This is the age when many children begin formal schooling. It is approximately 6 to 11 years of age.

First, let’s explore physical development during this time.

Middle childhood has been called the “golden age” of childhood. Overall, children are relatively healthy during this period. Growth rates slow and children start gaining about 5-7 pounds in weight and 2 inches in height each year. Many children begin to slim down as their torsos become longer. A child at this age can have strong muscles and increased lung capacity to enable them to play for long periods of time.

This is the age when many children begin to play organized sports. Their bodies are well-equipped for such activities. However, it’s been said that sports are best for children if their parents stay home. This is because parents can have the tendency to focus primarily on competition and less on instilling enjoyment of the game. This can lead to tension, hostility, and become a source of discouragement for a child who doesn’t always win. Unfortunately, such children may give up and become less active or experience burn-out at a young age. Listen to the story entitled “College Sports Excesses Seep into High School” by Frank DeFord, the editor of Sports Illustrated magazine for a humorous look at the adult mentality applied to sports. We know that unstructured play offers children the ability to be active without penalty and to be creative and improve social skills in ways that structured sports cannot.

Childhood obesity has become an increasing problem in the United States, Great Britain, and other parts of the world. It’s estimated that between 16 and 33 percent of American children are obese. This doesn’t mean that they are a few pounds overweight. It is defined as being at least 20 percent over ideal weight. Childhood obesity has tripled in the last 30 years. Obesity is defined as having a body mass index greater than or equal to the 95th percentile for sex and age. Children who suffer from obesity can be the subject of ridicule, bullying, cardiovascular disease, bone, joint problems, and type 2 diabetes.

The Center for Disease Control recommends that schools examine their nutrition on school menus, reevaluate the offerings of food and beverages outside school lunches, and increase physical activity to begin to combat this problem. Here is a copy of the school lunches served at my children’s school a few years ago. A popular meal was served on Wednesdays each week. It consisted on chicken nuggets, a roll, green beans or mashed potatoes.

Let’s examine the nutritional breakdown of this meal:

Here we find some alarming information. This menu, which fell within state nutritional guidelines, consisted of 1181 calories, 2878 mg of sodium, 145 mg of cholesterol, 39.33 grams of fat (of which 20.04 grams were saturated fat), and 151 grams of carbohydrates. Ice cream, cookies, chips, and sodas were available at the end of the line for additional purchase. School lunches vary from state to state and school district to school district. Parents need to be aware of what is served within the schools as well as to consider other sources of high fat, high starch foods their children are consuming.

Now we will explore cognitive development in middle childhood.

Piaget’s third stage, the concrete operational stage of intelligence, involves the ability to understand the physical or tangible world. Children can now classify objects in many ways. They recognized that objects retain their identity, even if modified (such as a scrambled egg is still an egg), and recognize the identity held by numbers. It becomes easier for school aged children to reverse a set of operations in math or to understand that moving backward in a set of procedures can bring one back to the beginning point. Reciprocity is also understood. A child recognizes that the water level rises if a container of water is narrow and falls if water is placed in a wide, shallow container.

Information processing theory is a classic theory of memory that uses the analogy of a computer to help us understand how memories are built. The first location for information to enter is through the senses. Seeing, hearing, touching, or smelling a stimulus is the first step to forming a memory. Most of what comes into our sensory register is there for only a split second and then is either dismissed or moved to our working or short term memory. Short term or working memory has a limited capacity of about 9 to 11 pieces of information at a time. Information must be rehearsed to be kept alive in our short term memories. The long term or knowledge base consists of information that we have stored and can access when needed. This storage area has a seemingly unlimited capacity. The key to being able to access what is in your long-term memory is making sure that it is stored in a meaningful ways children enter school, they begin to process information more quickly than before. This is because they can find links and meaning in new information and store it more easily. Schooling often involves learning new strategies to help with academic tasks.

Vocabulary continues to increase throughout middle childhood at the rate of about 20 new words each day. A 5th grader knows an estimated 40,000 words. And they begin to understand the meanings of words and plays on words. Grammar is more easily learned and rules of grammar are applied more flexibly.

Lawrence Kohlberg applied Piaget’s principles to moral decision-making. In the preconventional stage, moral decision-making is based on whether an action brings direct, personal benefit such as reward or punishment.  Conventional moral reasoning is based on the opinions of others about the act. Still, personal benefit, perhaps in the form of being viewed as right or good is the basis for a decision to act. Post conventional moral reasoning is based on universal, moral, or ethical principles or the good of others rather than self.

School brings assessment of a child’s performance and developmental problems can be recognized once a child enters this setting. Diagnosing and labeling a child with a developmental problem can help parents, teachers, and others to form a treatment plan to assist the child. But labels can be inaccurate and misapplied. Nevertheless, the label can become part of the child’s self-assessment and the child may begin to act accordingly. For example, a child labeled as a ‘slow-learner’ may lose confidence in their abilities and feel self-conscious about the label. This can get in the way of learning and thereby create a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Autism spectrum disorders range from pervasive developmental delay to Asperger’s syndrome. Children vary in the degree to which they exhibit autistic symptoms. The word autism means ‘selfism’ or a focus on an internal world. Children with autism spectrum disorders may lack motivation to learn language, be sensitive to detail, prefer consistency, and lack or be delayed in developing social emotions such as embarrassment or guilt. A minority of children with autistic spectrum disorders have unusual talents. These talents or strong interests are more characteristic of Asperger’s syndrome.

Consider this definition of learning disability: “A measured discrepancy between expected learning and actual accomplishment in a particular academic area.” This definition calls our attention to the academic standards we set for children and the labeling process to which they may be subjected. By this definition, raising standards can result in an increase of students who are considered learning disabled.

Learning difficulties are specific to academic skills and include dyslexia, dyscalcula, and attention deficit disorder. There are numerous conditions that can lead to these difficulties.

Schooling brings assessment of intellectual skills. Some assessments are achievement tests. These are designed to measure what a child has learned and are administered at the end of a course of study. Aptitude tests are designed to measure a child’s potential to learn and may be used as entrance requirements. Intelligence tests are one type of aptitude test. However, intelligence tests are not uniformly administered. They are more likely used as part of a clinical assessment in situations in which a child needs special attention or instruction.

Intelligence tests do not measure all types of talents or intelligences. Howard Gardner suggests that there are many talents abilities that can set a person apart and help them be successful that go beyond academic intelligence. His domains of intelligences include logical-mathematical, linguistic, and spatial intelligence , which are the kinds of abilities measured by intelligence tests. Other intelligences include bodily-kinesthetic intelligence which focuses on movement, strength, accuracy, and endurance; musical intelligence , intrapersonal intelligence , or knowledge of one’s own motivations and internal psychological state; interpersonal intelligence , or the ability to read others accurately, negotiate, communicate and exhibit other interpersonal skills; naturalistic intelligence such as the knowledge of climate, crops, or animals vital to success in farming or herding; and existential intelligence that involves spiritual or philosophical understandings that address life’s bigger questions about existence and purpose.

Robert Sternberg offers another model of intelligence that takes us outside academic intelligence. His t riarchic theory of intelligence includes academic intelligence or “book smarts” which is the type of intelligence IQ tests measure. But also considered key are creative or experiential intelligence and practical intelligence.  Creative intelligence is the ability to use what has been learned or to put knowledge into experience.  Practical intelligence or “street smarts” also referred to as common sense is the ability to understand what is called for in a situation and to act accordingly. These intelligences are important for success in life

Let’s take a different look at school and the world of school as experienced by parents and students. Schools often express a desire for family involvement. Some families bring qualities to the school setting that can influence the child’s experience. These qualities, such as financial support for the school or community status are referred to as family capital. A well-known member of the community or a parent who offers time, money, and a supportive attitude toward the teacher may be receive additional resources or guidance for their child. Have you ever asked a child about their day at school? Chances are, the answer focused on the social life at school. Educator Peter McLaren observed and recorded the amount of time students spent in various states throughout the school day. The student state is a state in which the students is on task, compliant, and focused on teacher requests. About 298 minutes were spent in the student state. This is the state preferred by teachers. But many students preferred to spend time in the street corner state. This is a state in which the child is able to socialize with other children and to act as they might when not in school. Children try to maximize this stage by taking longer in the halls when going from one classroom to another or by moving more slowly when getting out books or other materials. The home state occurs when family members are at the school. In this state, children are subjected to a different set of rules than those set by the school. For example, a child may get to sit with their parents or leave a class early as a result.

All schools have a formal curriculum or set of courses and objectives that are clearly written down. But schools also teach powerful lessons referred to as the “hidden curriculum.”These lessons include gender roles, competition, preferences based on social class, race, ethnicity, and sexual orientation. The hidden curriculum is not directly states, yet students receive indirect messages about the believed superiority or inferiority of these groups. For example, a teacher may ignore insults made toward a student for being gay even if the school has an official policy against discrimination based on sexual orientation.

Psychosocial development in middle childhood.

Entering school often means entering the society or culture of children. Children establish a language, set of rules, behaviors, and roles for one another. This society of children can serve as a living laboratory for learning and practicing social skills such as negotiation, communication, and problem-solving.Think about the children you remember from your early grades in school. You may remember some children who were known by many and were well-liked. These popular-prosocial children are highly visible and seem to have the support and the encouragement of the school. Some children are popular, but their popularity comes from altercations with other students and rebelliousness within the school. It may be hard for these children to change their social behavior as it has become part of their persona and popularity. Some children are withdrawn and suffer the rejection of other children. They may have some qualities that make them a safe target for bullying such as being poor, having a physical challenge, or being shy. Aggressive-rejected children are rebellious and have altercations with other students, but this doesn’t gain them popularity? Why not? Perhaps it is because they are not physically attractive or are poor.

School-aged children are forming a sense of self or self-concept. This begins earlier in life, but continues to take shape in middle childhood. In societies where media is powerful, children may develop evaluation themselves based on images or products in television shows, commercials, or on the internet. Erikson believed that these children struggle with industry, a stage of being busy and learning about one’s capabilities, versus inferiority. To what extent might a child feel inferior in these comparisons?

To what extent are developmental needs addressed in the world that we establish for children? Many of the activities and products created for children may really be designed to meet adult needs rather than those of children. Think, for example, of the elaborate birthday party given a 6 year old that is really an effort to establish parental status in the neighborhood. False self-training refers to children being held to external, adult standards while having their own developmental needs denied. One area in which children are held to adult standards is in the case of sexual abuse.

Child sexual abuse is a sexual act with a child that is performed by an adult or an older child. The developmental immaturity of the child is ignored and needs are disregarded. For example, a young girl who begins physical maturation early may be considered to be sexual although emotionally and cognitively she is not equipped to understand the sexual behavior and its implications.

David Finkelhor describes the long term consequences of childhood sexual abuse. Traumatic sexualization refers to the way in which a child who is sexually abused may learn to use sexuality and seduction as a major way to communicate with others. The person may devalue other aspects of who they are and have difficulty thinking of sex and love as part of a relationship. A sense of betrayal and lack of trust is particularly strong in cases of incest. The child learned that secrecy and denial of the experience is expected and that those who are supposed to care for you can also be those who abuse you. A healthy understand of an appropriate parent/child relationship is lacking as trust is undermined. A person may also experience a sense of powerlessness or an inability to set limits with others. This may mean being involved in other abusive relationships or in being unable to say no to demands on time or money or other resources. Finally, the person who is abused may feel stigmatized or looked down upon by others. This makes it difficult for the person to ask for help or find support or to be taken seriously in a compassionate way.

Next, let’s turn our attention to family structure and relationships. There are a variety of family forms, from two-parent intact families, to single-parent families, to cohabiting families. Which structure is best? One way to address this question is to understand the tasks performed by families. Family tasks include providing food, clothing, and shelter for children, encouraging learning, developing self-esteem in children, nurturing their friendships, and providing a harmonious and stable environment for family life.

Divorce rates in the United States began to rise in the 1970s and increased steadily until it peaked in the early 1980s. This has been accompanied by great concern over the impact divorce has on children. Divorce doesn’t affect all children in the same way. The impact of divorce on children depends on the degree of conflict prior to divorce, the amount of financial hardship experienced by the children, the actions of the divorcing couple toward the child, and the level of adjustment of the custodial parent.

Judith Wallerstein outlines some short-term consequences for children following divorce. These include a feeling of loss or grief over family members who are no longer part of the child’s life, a reduced standard of living, adjusting to transitions such as changing schools or moving, and experiencing relief from conflict that may have been experienced prior to the divorce.

Adults who experienced divorce as children may have greater anxiety about their own relationships. Or they may have unrealistically high expectations for a partner-seeking the perfect mate to avoid future divorce. Of course, it’s hard to find perfection. Peggy Drexler suggests that many of the long term consequences for children are tied to financial hardship rather than divorce. For instance, there may have been less financial support for schooling that then translates to lower occupational attainment following divorce.

Newer research on the impact of divorce on children has focused on some positive consequences. Hetherington found that most children of divorce lead happy, well-adjusted lives. These well-adjusted adults went unnoticed when researchers focused solely on looking at people with problems and used hindsight to suggest that their problems were due to divorce. Many daughters find that their communication improves with their mothers, typically their custodial parent. Parenting becomes more democratic and children have a greater role in family decision-making as they mature. Drexler found that sons felt freer to escape negative role models if their mothers were in dating relationships than if those negative models were marital partners. And sons being raised without fathers showed more emotional independence and freedom to express emotions being in a single-parent family.

The psychological health of the parents, especially the parent with whom the child spends the most time, is key to helping children adjust. Here are a few tips for parents going through divorce. One is to take care of your own mental health. Find others that can offer support and understanding. Allow children to express their grief over losses. Cultivate a healthy, conflict-free relationship with the other parent for the sake of the children. And try to establish a home environment that is healthy, positive, and comfortable.

Repartnering refers to parents developing new relationships after breaking up. Remarriage is one type of repartnering. Sometimes, repartnering can be an even harder transition for children than was the divorce of their parents. Parenting that may have become more democratic in a single-parent household, may now become more authoritarian when a new partner becomes part of the family. This can be a difficult adjustment for children. Step-parents may want to take on parental roles right away, but children may want to establish friendship first.

Repartnering can also mean changes in the amount of time and attention biological parents show their children. The greatest involvement with children may occur before either parent has established a new relationship. The least involvement seems to occur when the father has established a new relationship but the mother has not. The father may be spending more time with his new partner and children. And there may be greater tension between mother and step-mother than between father and step-father due to the emphasis on involvement in maternal roles.

Repartnering also brings about dating concerns. Does a parent have time and money to date? Should the parent have a new partner meet their children? If so, when? What will be their role? Should the new partner spend the night? Cohabitation is one way of repartnering. The partners live together but are not married. Cohabiting families must consider the roles of partners, the financial contributions to the family and to members outside the household, and the effects of breaking up on children who may now have to sever ties they’ve established.

Stepfamilies or blended families have been increasing since divorce rates began to rise. But stepfamilies were also common in western society in the 1700s and 1800s. The stepfamilies of today, however, are typically created through divorce and remarriage rather than due to the death of a spouse. Sociologist Andrew Cherlin has described stepfamilies as an “incomplete institution” because the rules and guidelines for life in stepfamilies are unclear. Stepfamilies may experience greater difficulty than single-parent families as they try to establish new rules and roles and deal with mixed loyalties and relationships.

Stepfamilies have some characteristics that need to be considered. Stepfamilies are structurally more complex. There are more members involves and their loyalties may be divided. Many stepfamilies are established at the same time members are grieving over previous losses following divorce. Love between members of stepfamilies has to be cultivated; it cannot be assumed. The roles that stepfamily members play, whether this is a new step-parent or a non-custodial parent, are often unclear and have to be established. And sexual attractions may occur and need to be monitored. Modesty and caution when showing physical displays of affection are recommended.

This is an effort to establish some guidelines for stepfamily members. Here are a few tips. One is to establish neutral territory or routines for the new family rather than having members adjust to the previous family’s location or routines. If you are a stepparent, don’t try to fit a preconceived role. Set limits so that the new couple can establish their new relationship without unnecessary interference or efforts to sabotage the relationship by the children. Respect past loyalties. Recognize that your partner and their children have a past that should be recognized and respected. If a child is upset with the other parent, be neutral about it. Don’t get in the middle of this or you may be resented later for interfering or speaking badly about their parent. If you are a stepparent, don’t expect instant love. Stepfamilies go through developmental stages, according to Papernow. This process can take up to 7 years. Fantasy about the perfect family, being immersed in the new relationships, and ‘mapping out’ the new territory are found in the early stages of stepfamily development.

In the middle stages, members begin to recognize their differences and express conflicts more openly. Stepparents may begin to take a stand on their role and position in the family. In later stages, a lot of the hard work of establishing the family’s roles and rules has been accomplished and the members make closer contact with one another. Acceptance of one another and the family is found. Many stepfamilies, however, find it difficult to endure long enough to complete theses stages.

  • Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. Authored by : Laura Overstreet. Located at : http://opencourselibrary.org/econ-201/ . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
  • Middle Childhood. Authored by : Laura Overstreet. Located at : http://youtu.be/T4zjQK9oFWg . Project : OCL. License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube license

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Home » Wellness and Primary Care » Child Development: Milestones, Ages and Stages » Growth & Development: 6 to 12 Years (School Age)

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Growth & Development: 6 to 12 Years (School Age)

As kids grow from grade-schoolers to preteens, you can expect many changes from their physical appearances to their favorite activities. Children between 6 and 12 years old will begin valuing friendships and become more involved in activities like sports and/or painting.

Doctors use certain milestones to tell if a child is developing as expected. There’s a wide range of what’s considered normal, so some children gain skills earlier or later than others. Children who were born prematurely reach milestones later. Always talk with your doctor about your child’s progress.

What can my 6- to 12-year-old child do at this age?

As your child continues to grow, you will notice new and exciting abilities that your child develops. While children may progress at different rates and have diverse interests, the following are some of the common milestones children may reach in this age group:

6- to 7-year-olds:

  • Enjoy many activities and stays busy
  • Like to paint and draw
  • Practice skills in order to become better
  • Can tie shoelaces
  • Can do simple math like adding and subtracting

8- to 9-year-olds can:

  • Jump, skip and chase
  • Dress and groom self completely
  • Use tools (i.e., hammer, screwdriver)

10- to 12-year-olds may:

  • Like to write, draw and paint

What does my 6- to 12-year-old child understand?

As children enter school-age, their abilities and understanding of concepts and the world around them continue to grow. While children may progress at different rates, the following are some of the common milestones children may reach in this age group:

  • Understand concept of numbers
  • Know daytime and nighttime
  • Can differentiate right and left hands
  • Can copy complex shapes, such as a diamond
  • Can tell time
  • Can understand commands with three separate instructions
  • Can explain objects and their use
  • Can repeat three numbers backwards
  • Can read age-appropriate books and/or materials

8- to 9-year-olds:

  • Can count backwards
  • Know the date
  • Read more and enjoy reading
  • Understand fractions
  • Understand concept of space
  • Draw and paint
  • Can name months and days of week, in order
  • Enjoys collecting objects

10- to 12-year-olds:

  • Write stories
  • Like to write letters
  • Enjoy talking on the phone or texting

Ages and Stages - 6-12 years

Wellness and Fitness Milestones

Kids at this age need physical activity to build strength, coordination, and confidence — and to lay the groundwork for a healthy lifestyle. They’re also gaining more control over how active they are. Kids who enjoy sports and exercise tend to stay active throughout their lives. Staying fit can improve how kids develop in school, build self-esteem, as well as prevent obesity, and decrease the risk of serious illnesses such as high blood pressure, diabetes and heart disease later in life.

What is “normal” physical growth for a 6- to 12-year-old child?

For 6- to 12-year-olds, there continues to be a wide range of “normal” regarding height, weight and shape. Kids tend to get taller at a steady pace, growing about 2-2.5 inches (6 to 7 centimeters) each year. When it comes to weight, kids gain about 4–7 lbs. (2–3 kg) per year until puberty starts.

This is also a time when kids start to have feelings about how they look and how they’re growing. Some girls may worry about being “too big,” especially those who are developing early. Boys tend to be sensitive about being too short.

Try to help your child understand that the important thing is not to “look” a certain way, but rather to be healthy. Kids can’t change the genes that will determine how tall they will be or when puberty starts. But they can make the most of their potential by developing healthy eating habits and being physically active.

Your doctor will take measurements at regular checkups, then plot your child’s results on a standard growth chart to follow over time and compare with other kids the same age and gender.

How can I help my child grow?

Normal growth — supported by good nutrition, enough sleep, and regular exercise — is one of the best overall indicators of a child’s good health. Your child’s growth pattern is largely determined by genetics.

Pushing kids to eat extra food or get higher amounts of vitamins, minerals, or other nutrients will not increase their height and may lead to weight problems. Accepting kids as they are helps them build self-acceptance. Good mental health is important for healthy development, strong relationships and resilience.

Ages and Stages - 6-12 years

How active should my 6- to 12-year-old be?

School-age kids should have many chances to do a variety of activities, sports, and games that fit their personality, ability, age, and interests. Through physical activities, kids learn about sportsmanship, setting goals, meeting challenges, teamwork, and the value of practice.

Physical activity guidelines for school-age kids recommend that they get at least 1 hour of moderate to strong physical activity daily. In addition:

  • Most of the physical activity should be aerobic, where kids use large muscles and continue for a period of time.
  • Examples of aerobic activity are running, swimming, and dancing.
  • School-age kids usually have brief bouts of moderate to strong physical activity alternating with light activity or rest throughout the day. Any moderate to strong activity counts toward the 60-minute goal.
  • Muscle-strengthening and bone-strengthening physical activity should be included at least 3 days a week.
  • Children naturally build strong muscles and bones when they run, jump and play. Formal weight programs aren’t needed. However, they are safe when properly designed and supervised.

Should my child participate in sports?

Keep in mind your child’s age and developmental level, natural abilities, and interests. Kids 6 to 8 years old are sharpening basic physical skills like jumping, throwing, kicking, and catching. Some enjoy doing this in organized sports teams, but non-competitive leagues are best for younger kids. Kids 9 to 12 years old are refining, improving and coordinating skills. Some become even more committed to a sport while others drop out as competition heats up and level of play improves. Regardless of the age or activity, it is important that you show your support by coaching your child’s team or cheering from the stands on game days.

It’s okay if a child isn’t interested in traditional sports, but it’s important to find alternative ways to be active. Brainstorm with your kids on activities that feel right for them. Encourage a child who doesn’t like soccer, basketball, or other team sports to explore other active options, like karate, fencing, golf, bicycling, skateboarding, and tennis. Most kids won’t mind the physical activity as long as they are having fun.

Fitness at Home

Many parents and kids think of organized sports when they think of fitness. Though there are many advantages to signing a child up for a sports team, practice and games once or twice a week will not be enough to reach activity goals. Also, parents shouldn’t rely on physical education in schools alone to provide children with enough physical activity.

Here are some ways to keep your child moving at home:

  • Make physical activity part of the daily routine. From household chores to an after-dinner walk, keep your family active every day.
  • Allow enough time for free play. Kids can burn more calories and have more fun when left to their own devices. Playing tag, riding bikes around the neighborhood, and building snowmen are fun and healthy.
  • Keep a variety of games and sports equipment on hand. It doesn’t have to be expensive — an assortment of balls, hula-hoops, and jump ropes can keep kids busy for hours.
  • Be active together. It’ll get you moving, and kids love to play with their parents.
  • Limit time spent in sedentary activities such as watching TV, using electronic devices, being online and playing video games.

If you run out of possibilities at home, take advantage of local playgrounds and athletic fields. Make family fitness outings part of your regular routine. Let family members choose an activity — go hiking, ice skating, or try out the rock-climbing gym. Anything goes, as long as everyone can participate. And remember: You’ll help show your kids that exercise is important by regularly exercising yourself.

Preventing Sports-Related Injury

Kids who participate in sports are at risk for injuries, so be sure your child wears the proper protective equipment, such as shin-guards and cleats in soccer, or a helmet and protective pads when rollerblading or skateboarding. Kids who specialize in one sport are also at risk of overuse injuries, including stress fractures and joint injuries. If a child is in pain, it is best to rest and let the injury heal before returning to play.

A child with a chronic health condition or disability should not be excluded from these fitness activities in fear of getting a sports-related injury. Some activities may need to be changed or adapted, and some may be too risky depending on the condition. The best thing to do is to talk to your doctor about which activities are safe for your child.

If your child complains of pain during or after physical activity, talk with your doctor.

How long should my 6- to 12-year-old sleep?

School-age kids need 9-12 hours of sleep at night. Bedtime problems can start at this age for a variety of reasons. Homework, sports, after-school activities, screen time, and hectic family schedules all can contribute to kids not getting the sleep they need. Sleep-deprived kids can become hyper or irritable and may have a hard time paying attention in school.

It’s still important to have a consistent bedtime, especially on school nights. Leave enough technology-free time before bed to allow your child to unwind before lights-out. Consider switching off the electronics at least an hour before bed. Avoiding keeping a TV in their bedroom.

Check out our Healthy Sleep Guide for Children for more info.

Puberty — or sexual development — is a time of dramatic change for both boys and girls. The age at which the physical changes of puberty normally begin varies widely.

For both sexes, these hormone-driven changes are accompanied by growth spurts that transform children into physically mature teens as their bodies develop. They may also experience side effects from these hormones like acne and mood changes.

Puberty in Girls

Breast development, usually the first noticeable sign of puberty in girls, may begin anytime between ages 8 and 13. Events in girls as they go through puberty:

  • Breasts begin to develop, and hips become rounded.
  • The increase in the rate of growth in height begins.
  • Pubic hair begins to appear, usually 6–12 months after the start of breast development. About 15% of girls will develop pubic hair before breast development starts.
  • The uterus and vagina, as well as labia and clitoris, increase in size.
  • Pubic hair is well established, and breasts grow further. Each breast can grow at different rates, may not be the same sizes.
  • The rate of growth in height reaches its peak by about 2 years after puberty began. The average age is 12 years.
  • Menstruation begins about 2 years after breast start to develop and almost always after the peak growth rate in height has been reached. The average age is 12.5 years.
  • Once girls get their periods, they usually grow about 1 or 2 more inches (2.5 to 5 centimeters), reaching their final adult height by about age 14 or 15 years. Girls can experience this at a younger or older age depending on when puberty began.

Puberty in Boys

Most boys show the first physical changes of puberty between ages 10 and 16 and tend to grow most quickly between ages 12 and 15. The growth spurt of boys is, on average, about 2 years later than that of girls. By age 16, most boys have stopped growing, but their muscles will continue to develop.

Other features of puberty in boys include:

  • The penis and testicles increase in size. Testicles can grow at different rates, may not be the same sizes.
  • Pubic hair appears, followed by underarm and facial hair.
  • The voice deepens and may sometimes crack or break.
  • The Adam’s apple, or larynx cartilage, gets bigger.
  • Testicles begin to produce sperm.

Communication Milestones

How does my 6- to 12-year-old child interact with others.

A very important part of growing up is the ability to interact and socialize with others. During the school-age years, parents will see a transition in their child as he or she moves from playing alone to having multiple friends and social groups. While friendships become more important, the child is still fond of his or her parents and likes being part of a family. While every child is unique and will develop different personalities, the following are some of the common behavioral traits that may be present in your child:

  • Cooperate and share
  • Can get jealous of others and siblings
  • Like to copy adults
  • Like to play alone, but friends are becoming important
  • Play with friends of the same gender
  • May have occasional temper tantrums
  • May be modest about body
  • Like to play board games
  • Like competition and games
  • Start to mix friends and play with children of different gender
  • Enjoy clubs and groups, such as Boy Scouts or Girl Scouts
  • May become curious about relationships, but does not admit it
  • Will value friendship; may have a best friend
  • May develop romantic interests
  • Like and respect parents
  • Enjoy talking to others

How can I help increase my 6- to 12-year-old child’s social ability?

Consider the following as ways to foster your school-aged child’s social abilities:

  • Set and provide appropriate limits, guidelines and expectations and consistently enforce using appropriate consequences.
  • Model appropriate behavior.
  • Offer compliments for your child being cooperative and for any personal achievements.
  • Help your child choose activities that are appropriate for your child’s abilities.
  • Encourage your child to talk with you and be open with his or her feelings.
  • Encourage your child to read and read with your child.
  • Encourage your child to get involved with hobbies and other activities.
  • Encourage physical activity.
  • Encourage self-discipline; expect your child to follow rules that are set.
  • Teach your child to respect and listen to authority figures.
  • Teach your child to be aware of consequences of their behavior and empathy for others.
  • Encourage your child to talk about peer pressure and help set guidelines to deal with peer pressure.
  • Spend uninterrupted time together – giving full attention to your child. A strong, loving relationship can have a direct positive influence on your child’s mental health.
  • Encourage time outside.
  • Limit television, video game and computer time.

Reviewed by Dr. Lydia Villa , Clinica CHOC Para Niños, CHOC Primary Care – May 2021

Your child’s health is important at every stage. Visit CHOC Primary Care for pediatric services near you.

What's coming up for your child

Teenager Growth & Development: 13 to 18 Years (Adolescent)

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11: Middle Childhood - Cognitive Development

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  • Page ID 24665

  • Paris, Ricardo, Raymond, & Johnson
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Learning Objectives

After this chapter, you should be able to:

  • Describe what cognitive theorists share about children and their thinking
  • Explain how intelligence is measured, the tests used to assess intelligence, the extremes in intelligence, and the concern of bias
  • Describe the Information Processing Theory
  • Explain several theories of language development
  • Compare typical language development with language difficulties

Cognitive skills continue to expand in middle and late childhood. Children in middle childhood have thought processes that become more logical and organized when dealing with concrete information. Children at this age understand concepts such as past, present, and future, giving them the ability to plan and work toward goals. Additionally, they can process complex ideas such as addition and subtraction and cause-and-effect relationships.1

  • 11.1: Cognitive Theories of Intelligence Theorists are able to give different perspectives to the cognitive development of children and psychologists have long debated how to best conceptualize and measure intelligence (Sternberg, 2003). In the next section, we’ll look at Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, Sternberg’s alternative view to intelligence, and Gardener’s theory of multiple intelligence. Lastly, you’ll learn about the Information Processing Theory that looks at the cognitive function of children in middle childhood.
  • 11.2: Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development As children continue into elementary school, they develop the ability to represent ideas and events more flexibly and logically. Their rules of thinking still seem very basic by adult standards and usually operate unconsciously, but they allow children to solve problems more systematically than before, and therefore to be successful with many academic tasks.
  • 11.3: Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences Another champion of the idea of specific types of intelligences rather than one overall intelligence is the psychologist Howard Gardner (1983, 1999). Gardner argued that it would be evolutionarily functional for different people to have different talents and skills, and proposed that there are nine intelligences that can be differentiated from each other.
  • 11.4: Information Processing- Learning, Memory, and Problem Solving During middle and late childhood children make strides in several areas of cognitive function including the capacity of working memory, their ability to pay attention, and their use of memory strategies. Both changes in the brain and experience foster these abilities.
  • 11.5: Cognitive Processes As children enter school and learn more about the world, they develop more categories for concepts and learn more efficient strategies for storing and retrieving information. One significant reason is that they continue to have more experiences on which to tie new information. In other words, their knowledge base, knowledge in particular areas that makes learning new information easier, expands (Berger, 2014).
  • 11.6: Intelligence Testing - The What, the Why, and the Who The goal of most intelligence tests is to measure “g”, the general intelligence factor. Good intelligence tests are reliable, meaning that they are consistent over time, and also demonstrate validity, meaning that they actually measure intelligence rather than something else.
  • 11.7: Language Development in the School-Age Child Human language is the most complex behavior on the planet and, at least as far as we know, in the universe. Language involves both the ability to comprehend (receptive) spoken and written (expressive) words and to create communication in real-time when we speak or write.
  • 11.8: Introduction to Linguistics Language is such a special topic that there is an entire field, linguistics, devoted to its study. Linguistics views language in an objective way, using the scientific method and rigorous research to form theories about how humans acquire, use, and sometimes abuse language. There are a few major branches of linguistics, which is useful to understand in order to learn about language from a psychological perspective.
  • 11.9: Bilingualism - also known as Dual Language Learners or English Language Learners Although monolingual speakers (those that only speak one language) often do not realize it, the majority of children around the world are bilingual, (they understand and use two languages). (Meyers- Sutton, 2005). Even in the United States, which is a relatively monolingual society, more than 47 million people speak a language other than English at home, and about 10 million of these people are children or youth in public schools (United States Department of Commerce, 2003).
  • 11.10: Theories of Language Development Humans, especially children, have an amazing ability to learn language. Within the first year of life, children will have learned many of the necessary concepts to have functional language, although it will still take years for their capabilities to develop fully. As we just explained, some people learn two or more languages fluently and are bilingual or multilingual. Here is a recap of the theorists and theories that have been proposed to explain the development of language.
  • 11.11: Learning to Read While the foundations of this were laid in infancy and early childhood, formal instruction on this process usually happens during the school-age years. There isn’t always complete agreement on how children are best taught to read. The following approaches to teaching reading are separated by their methodology, but today, models of reading strive for a balance between the two types of reading methods because they are both recognized as essential for learning to read.
  • 11.12: Learning Difficulties When children don’t seem to be developing or learning in the typical pattern one might be assessed for a disorder or disability. What is a learning disorder or disability? In the next section we’ll learn about the spectrum of disorders and how they may impact many areas of the child's life.
  • 11.S: Summary

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Understanding Developmental Psychology

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

middle childhood development task is

Daniel B. Block, MD, is an award-winning, board-certified psychiatrist who operates a private practice in Pennsylvania.

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  • Seeking Treatment

Frequently Asked Questions

Change is inevitable. As humans, we constantly grow throughout our lifespans, from conception to death. The field of developmental psychology explores the behavioral, emotional, physical, and cognitive changes that happen as people age.

Psychologists strive to understand and explain how and why people change throughout life. While many of these changes are normal and expected, they can still pose challenges that people sometimes need extra assistance to manage.

The principles of normative development help professionals spot potential problems and provide early intervention for better outcomes. Developmental psychologists can work with people of all ages to address roadblocks and support growth, although some choose to specialize in a specific age group such as childhood, adulthood, or old age.

What Is Developmental Psychology?

Developmental psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on how people grow and change over the course of a lifetime.

Those who specialize in this field are not just concerned with the physical changes that occur as people grow; they also look at the social, emotional, and cognitive development that occurs throughout life.

Some of the many issues developmental psychologists assist with include:

  • Cognitive development during childhood and throughout life
  • Developmental challenges and learning disabilities
  • Emotional development
  • Language acquisition
  • Moral reasoning
  • Motor skill development
  • Personality development
  • Self-awareness and self-concept
  • Social and cultural influences on child development

These professionals spend a great deal of time investigating and observing how these processes occur under normal circumstances, but they are also interested in learning about things that can disrupt developmental processes.

By better understanding how and why people change and grow, developmental psychologists help people live up to their full potential. Understanding the course of normal human development and recognizing potential problems early on can prevent difficulties with depression, low self-esteem, frustration, and low achievement in school.

Developmental Psychology Theories

Developmental psychologists often utilize a number of theories to think about different aspects of human development. For example, a psychologist assessing intellectual development in a child might consider Piaget's theory of cognitive development , which outlined the key stages that children go through as they learn.

A psychologist working with a child might also want to consider how the child's relationships with caregivers influences his or her behaviors, and so turn to Bowlby's theory of attachment .

Psychologists are also interested in looking at how social relationships influence the development of both children and adults. Erikson's theory of psychosocial development and Vygotsky's theory of sociocultural development are two popular theoretical frameworks that address the social influences on the developmental process.

Each approach tends to stress different aspects of development such as mental, social, or parental influences on how children grow and progress .

When to See a Developmental Psychologist

While development tends to follow a fairly predictable pattern, there are times when things might go off course. Parents often focus on what are known as developmental milestones, which represent abilities that most children tend to display by a certain point in development. These typically focus on one of four different areas:

  • Physical milestones
  • Cognitive milestones
  • Social/emotional milestones
  • Communication milestones

For example, walking is one physical milestone that most children achieve sometime between the ages of 9 and 15 months. If a child is not walking or attempting to walk by 16 to 18 months, parents might consider consulting with their family physician to determine if a developmental issue might be present.

While all children develop at different rates, when a child fails to meet certain milestones by a certain age, there may be cause for concern.

By being aware of these milestones, parents can seek assistance, and healthcare professionals can offer interventions that can help kids overcome developmental delays.

These professionals often evaluate children to determine if a developmental delay might be present, or they might work with elderly patients who are facing health concerns associated with old age such as cognitive declines, physical struggles, emotional difficulties, or degenerative brain disorders.

Developmental psychologists can provide support to individuals at all points of life who may be facing developmental issues or problems related to aging.

Developmental Psychology Stages

As you might imagine, developmental psychologists often break down development according to various phases of life. Each of these periods of development represents a time when different milestones are typically achieved.

People may face particular challenges at each point, and developmental psychologists can often help people who might be struggling with problems to get back on track.

Prenatal Development

The prenatal period is of interest to developmental psychologists who seek to understand how the earliest influences on development can impact later growth during childhood. Psychologists may look at how primary reflexes emerge before birth, how fetuses respond to stimuli in the womb, and the sensations and perceptions that fetuses are capable of detecting prior to birth.

Developmental psychologists may also look at potential problems such as Down syndrome, maternal drug use, and inherited diseases that might have an impact on the course of future development.

Early Childhood Development

The period from infancy through early childhood is a time of remarkable growth and change. Developmental psychologists look at things such as the physical, cognitive, and emotional growth that takes place during this critical period of development.

In addition to providing interventions for potential developmental problems at this point, psychologists are also focused on helping kids achieve their full potential . Parents and healthcare experts are often on the lookout to ensure that kids are growing properly, receiving adequate nutrition, and achieving cognitive milestones appropriate for their age.

Middle Childhood Development

This period of development is marked by both physical maturation and the increased importance of social influences as children make their way through elementary school.

Kids begin to make their mark on the world as they form friendships, gain competency through schoolwork, and continue to build their unique sense of self. Parents may seek the assistance of a developmental psychologist to help kids deal with potential problems that might arise at this age including social, emotional, and mental health issues.

Adolescent Development

The teenage years are often the subject of considerable interest as children experience the psychological turmoil and transition that often accompanies this period of development. Psychologists such as Erik Erikson were especially interested in looking at how navigating this period leads to identity formation .

At this age, kids often test limits and explore new identities as they explore the question of who they are and who they want to be. Developmental psychologists can help support teens as they deal with some of the challenging issues unique to the adolescent period including puberty, emotional turmoil, and social pressure.

Early Adult Development

This period of life is often marked by forming and maintaining relationships. Critical milestones during early adulthood may include forming bonds, intimacy, close friendships, and starting a family.

Those who can build and sustain such relationships tend to experience connectedness and social support while those who struggle with such relationships may be left feeling alienated and lonely .

People facing such issues might seek the assistance of a developmental psychologist in order to build healthier relationships and combat emotional difficulties.

Middle Adult Development

This stage of life tends to center on developing a sense of purpose and contributing to society. Erikson described this as the conflict between generativity and stagnation .

Those who engage in the world, contribute things that will outlast them, and leave a mark on the next generation emerge with a sense of purpose. Activities such as careers, families, group memberships, and community involvement are all things that can contribute to this feeling of generativity.

Older Adult Development

The senior years are often viewed as a period of poor health, yet many older adults are capable of remaining active and busy well into their 80s and 90s. Increased health concerns mark this period of development, and some individuals may experience mental declines related to dementia.

Theorist Erik Erikson also viewed the elder years as a time of reflection back on life . Those who are able to look back and see a life well-lived emerge with a sense of wisdom and readiness to face the end of their lives, while those who look back with regret may be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.

Developmental psychologists may work with elderly patients to help them cope with issues related to the aging process.

Diagnosing Developmental Issues

To determine if a developmental problem is present, a psychologist or other highly trained professional may administer either a developmental screening or evaluation.

For children, such an evaluation typically involves interviews with parents and other caregivers to learn about behaviors they may have observed, a review of a child's medical history, and standardized testing to measure functioning in terms of communication, social/emotional skills, physical/motor development, and cognitive skills.

If a problem is found to be present, the patient may then be referred to a specialist such as a speech-language pathologist, physical therapist, or occupational therapist.

A Word From Verywell

Receiving a diagnosis of a developmental issue can often feel both confusing and frightening, particularly when it is your child who is affected. Once you or your loved one has received a diagnosis of a developmental issue, spend some time learning as much as you can about the diagnosis and available treatments.

Prepare a list of questions and concerns you may have and discuss these issues with your doctor, developmental psychologist, and other healthcare professionals who may be part of the treatment team. By taking an active role in the process, you will feel better informed and equipped to tackle the next steps in the treatment process.

The three major developmental psychology issues are focused on physical development, cognitive development, and emotional development.

The seven major stages of development are:

  • Infant development
  • Toddler development
  • Preschool development
  • Middle childhood development
  • Adolescent development
  • Early adult development
  • Older adult development

The principles of developmental psychology outlined by Paul Baltes suggest that development is (1) lifelong, (2) multidimensional, (3) multidirectional, (4) involves gains and losses, (5) plastic, and that developmental psychology is (6) multidisciplinary.  

Four developmental issues that psychologists explore are focused on the relative contributions of:

  • Nature vs. nurture : Is development primarily influenced by genetics or environmental factors?
  • Early vs. later experience : Do early childhood events matter more than events that happen later in life?
  • Continuity vs discontinuity : Is developmental change a gradual process or do changes happen suddenly and follow a specific course?
  • Abnormal behavior vs. individual differences : What represents abnormal development and what can be considered individual variations in development?

Keenan T, Evans S. An Introduction to Child Development . 2nd ed. SAGE; 2009.

  • Erikson EH. (1963).Childhood and Society. (2nd ed.). New York: Norton.
  • Erikson EH. (1968).Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: Norton.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Chapter 18: Psychosocial Development in Middle Childhood

Chapter 18 learning objectives.

  • Describe Erikson’s fourth stage of industry vs. inferiority
  • Describe the changes in self-concept, self-esteem, and self-efficacy
  • Explain Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
  • Describe the importance of peers, the stages of friendships, peer acceptance, and the consequences of peer acceptance
  • Describe bullying, cyberbullying and the consequences of bullying
  • Identify the types of families where children reside
  • Identify the five family tasks
  • Explain the consequences of divorce on children
  • Describe the effects of cohabitation and remarriage on children
  • Describe the characteristics and developmental stages of blended families

Erikson: Industry vs. Inferiority

According to Erikson, children in middle and late childhood are very busy or industrious (Erikson, 1982). They are constantly doing, planning, playing, getting together with friends, and achieving. This is a very active time, and a time when they are gaining a sense of how they measure up when compared with peers. Erikson believed that if these industrious children can be successful in their endeavors, they will get a sense of confidence for future challenges. If not, a sense of inferiority can be particularly haunting during middle and late childhood.

Self-Understanding

Self-concept refers to beliefs about general personal identity (Seiffert, 2011). These beliefs include personal attributes, such as one’s age, physical characteristics, behaviors, and competencies. Children in middle and late childhood have a more realistic sense of self than do those in early childhood, and they better understand their strengths and weaknesses. This can be attributed to greater experience in comparing their own performance with that of others, and to greater cognitive flexibility. Children in middle and late childhood are also able to include other peoples’ appraisals of them into their self-concept, including parents, teachers, peers, culture, and media. Internalizing others’ appraisals and creating social comparison affect children’s self-esteem, which is defined as an evaluation of one’s identity. Children can have individual assessments of how well they perform a variety of activities and also develop an overall global self-assessment. If there is a discrepancy between how children view themselves and what they consider to be their ideal selves, their self-esteem can be negatively affected.

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Another important development in self-understanding is self-efficacy, which is the belief that you are capable of carrying out a specific task or of reaching a specific goal (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997). Large discrepancies between self-efficacy and ability can create motivational problems for the individual (Seifert, 2011). If a student believes that he or she can solve mathematical problems, then the student is more likely to attempt the mathematics homework that the teacher assigns.

Unfortunately, the converse is also true. If a student believes that he or she is incapable of math, then the student is less likely to attempt the math homework regardless of the student’s actual ability in math. Since self-efficacy is self-constructed, it is possible for students to miscalculate or misperceive their true skill, and these misperceptions can have complex effects on students’ motivations. It is possible to have either too much or too little self-efficacy, and according to Bandura (1997) the optimum level seems to be either at or slightly above, true ability.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg (1963) built on the work of Piaget and was interested in finding out how our moral reasoning changes as we get older. He wanted to find out how people decide what is right and what is wrong. Just as Piaget believed that children’s cognitive development follows specific patterns, Kohlberg (1984) argued that we learn our moral values through active thinking and reasoning, and that moral development follows a series of stages. Kohlberg’s six stages are generally organized into three levels of moral reasons. To study moral development, Kohlberg posed moral dilemmas to children, teenagers, and adults, such as the following:

A man’s wife is dying of cancer and there is only one drug that can save her. The only place to get the drug is at the store of a pharmacist who is known to overcharge people for drugs. The man can only pay $1,000, but the pharmacist wants $2,000, and refuses to sell it to him for less, or to let him pay later. Desperate, the man later breaks into the pharmacy and steals the medicine. Should he have done that? Was it right or wrong? Why? (Kohlberg, 1984)

Level One-Preconventional Morality: In stage one, moral reasoning is based on concepts of punishment. The child believes that if the consequence for an action is punishment, then the action was wrong. In the second stage, the child bases his or her thinking on self-interest and reward. “You scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours.” The youngest subjects seemed to answer based on what would happen to the man as a result of the act. For example, they might say the man should not break into the pharmacy because the pharmacist might find him and beat him. Or they might say that the man should break in and steal the drug and his wife will give him a big kiss. Right or wrong, both decisions were based on what would physically happen to the man as a result of the act. This is a self-centered approach to moral decision-making. He called this most superficial understanding of right and wrong pre-conventional morality. Preconventional morality focuses on self-interest. Punishment is avoided, and rewards are sought. Adults can also fall into these stages, particularly when they are under pressure.

Level Two-Conventional Morality: Those tested who based their answers on what other people would think of the man as a result of his act, were placed in Level Two. For instance, they might say he should break into the store, and then everyone would think he was a good husband, or he should not because it is against the law. In either case, right and wrong is determined by what other people think. In stage three, the person wants to please others. At stage four, the person acknowledges the importance of social norms or laws and wants to be a good member of the group or society. A good decision is one that gains the approval of others or one that complies with the law. This he called conventional morality, people care about the effect of their actions on others. Some older children, adolescents, and adults use this reasoning.

Level Three-Postconventional Morality: Right and wrong are based on social contracts established for the good of everyone and that can transcend the self and social convention. For example, the man should break into the store because, even if it is against the law, the wife needs the drug and her life is more important than the consequences the man might face for breaking the law. Alternatively, the man should not violate the principle of the right of property because this rule is essential for social order. In either case, the person’s judgment goes beyond what happens to the self. It is based on a concern for others; for society as a whole, or for an ethical standard rather than a legal standard. This level is called post-conventional moral development because it goes beyond convention or what other people think to a higher, universal ethical principle of conduct that may or may not be reflected in the law. Notice that such thinking is the kind Supreme Court justices do all day when deliberating whether a law is moral or ethical, which requires being able to think abstractly. Often this is not accomplished until a person reaches adolescence or adulthood. In the fifth stage, laws are recognized as social contracts. The reasons for the laws, like justice, equality, and dignity, are used to evaluate decisions and interpret laws. In the sixth stage, individually determined universal ethical principles are weighed to make moral decisions. Kohlberg said that few people ever reach this stage. The six stages can be reviewed in Table 5.6.

Although research has supported Kohlberg’s idea that moral reasoning changes from an early emphasis on punishment and social rules and regulations to an emphasis on more general ethical principles, as with Piaget’s approach, Kohlberg’s stage model is probably too simple. For one, people may use higher levels of reasoning for some types of problems but revert to lower levels in situations where doing so is more consistent with their goals or beliefs (Rest, 1979). Second, it has been argued that the stage model is particularly appropriate for Western, rather than nonWestern, samples in which allegiance to social norms, such as respect for authority, may be particularly important (Haidt, 2001). In addition, there is frequently little correlation between how we score on the moral stages and how we behave in real life.

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Perhaps the most important critique of Kohlberg’s theory is that it may describe the moral development of males better than it describes that of females. Gilligan (1982) has argued that, because of differences in their socialization, males tend to value principles of justice and rights, whereas females value caring for and helping others. Although there is little evidence for a gender difference in Kohlberg’s stages of moral development (Turiel, 1998), it is true that girls and women tend to focus more on issues of caring, helping, and connecting with others than do boys and men (Jaffee & Hyde, 2000).

Friends and Peers

As toddlers, children may begin to show a preference for certain playmates (Ross & Lollis, 1989). However, peer interactions at this age often involve more parallel play rather than intentional social interactions (Pettit, Clawson, Dodge, & Bates, 1996). By age four, many children use the word “friend” when referring to certain children and do so with a fair degree of stability (Hartup, 1983). However, among young children “friendship” is often based on proximity, such as they live next door, attend the same school, or it refers to whomever they just happen to be playing with at the time (Rubin, 1980).

Friendships take on new importance as judges of one’s worth, competence, and attractiveness in middle and late childhood. Friendships provide the opportunity for learning social skills, such as how to communicate with others and how to negotiate differences. Children get ideas from one another about how to perform certain tasks, how to gain popularity, what to wear or say, and how to act. This society of children marks a transition from a life focused on the family to a life concerned with peers. During middle and late childhood, peers increasingly play an important role. For example, peers play a key role in a child’s self-esteem at this age as any parent who has tried to console a rejected child will tell you. No matter how complimentary and encouraging the parent may be, being rejected by friends can only be remedied by renewed acceptance. Children’s conceptualization of what makes someone a “friend” changes from a more egocentric understanding to one based on mutual trust and commitment. Both Bigelow (1977) and Selman (1980) believe that these changes are linked to advances in cognitive development.

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Bigelow and La Gaipa (1975) outline three stages to children’s conceptualization of friendship. In stage one, reward-cost, friendship focuses on mutual activities. Children in early, middle, and late childhood all emphasize similar interests as the main characteristics of a good friend. Stage two, normative expectation focuses on conventional morality; that is, the emphasis is on a friend as someone who is kind and shares with you. Clark and Bittle (1992) found that fifth graders emphasized this in a friend more than third or eighth graders. In the final stage, empathy and understanding, friends are people who are loyal, committed to the relationship, and share intimate information. Clark and Bittle (1992) reported eighth graders emphasized this more in a friend. They also found that as early as fifth grade, girls were starting to include a sharing of secrets, and not betraying confidences as crucial to someone who is a friend.

Selman (1980) outlines five stages of friendship from early childhood through to adulthood:

  • Momentary physical interaction , a friend is someone who you are playing with at this point in time. Selman notes that this is typical of children between the ages of three and six. These early friendships are based more on circumstances (e.g., a neighbor) than on genuine similarities.
  • One-way assistance , a friend is someone who does nice things for you, such as saving you a seat on the school bus or sharing a toy. However, children in this stage, do not always think about what they are contributing to the relationships. Nonetheless, having a friend is important and children will sometimes put up with a not so nice friend, just to have a friend. Children as young as five and as old as nine may be in this stage.
  • Fair-weather cooperation , children are very concerned with fairness and reciprocity, and thus, a friend is someone returns a favor. In this stage, if a child does something Figure 5.21 Source Source 198 nice for a friend there is an expectation that the friend will do something nice for them at the first available opportunity. When this fails to happen, a child may break off the friendship. Selman found that some children as young as seven and as old as twelve are in this stage.
  • Intimate and mutual sharing , typically between the ages of eight and fifteen, a friend is someone who you can tell them things you would tell no one else. Children and teens in this stage no longer “keep score” and do things for a friend because they genuinely care for the person. If a friendship dissolves in the stage it is usually due to a violation of trust. However, children in this stage do expect their friend to share similar interests and viewpoints and may take it as a betrayal if a friend likes someone that they do not.
  • Autonomous interdependence , a friend is someone who accepts you and that you accept as they are. In this stage children, teens, and adults accept and even appreciate differences between themselves and their friends. They are also not as possessive, so they are less likely to feel threatened if their friends have other relationships or interests. Children are typically twelve or older in this stage.

Peer Relationships: Sociometric assessment measures attraction between members of a group, such as a classroom of students. In sociometric research children are asked to mention the three children they like to play with the most, and those they do not like to play with. The number of times a child is nominated for each of the two categories (like, do not like) is tabulated. Popular children receive many votes in the “like” category, and very few in the “do not like” category. In contrast, rejected children receive more unfavorable votes, and few favorable ones. Controversial children are mentioned frequently in each category, with several children liking them and several children placing them in the do not like category. Neglected children are rarely mentioned in either category, and the average child has a few positive votes with very few negative ones (Asher & Hymel, 1981).

Most children want to be liked and accepted by their friends. Some popular children are nice and have good social skills. These popular-prosocial children tend to do well in school and are cooperative and friendly. Popular-antisocial children may gain popularity by acting tough or spreading rumors about others (Cillessen & Mayeux, 2004). Rejected children are sometimes excluded because they are rejected-withdrawn. These children are shy and withdrawn and are easy targets for bullies because they are unlikely to retaliate when belittled (Boulton, 1999). Other rejected children are rejected-aggressive and are ostracized because they are aggressive, loud, and confrontational. The aggressive-rejected children may be acting out of a feeling of insecurity. Unfortunately, their fear of rejection only leads to behavior that brings further rejection from other children. Children who are not accepted are more likely to experience conflict, lack confidence, and have trouble adjusting (Klima & Repetti, 2008; Schwartz, Lansford, Dodge, Pettit, & Bates, 2014).

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Long-Term Consequences of Popularity: Childhood popularity researcher Mitch Prinstein has found that likability in childhood leads to positive outcomes throughout one’s life (as cited in Reid, 2017). Adults who were accepted in childhood have stronger marriages and work relationships, earn more money, and have better health outcomes than those who were unpopular. Further, those who were unpopular as children, experienced greater anxiety, depression, substance use, obesity, physical health problems and suicide. Prinstein found that a significant consequence of unpopularity was that children were denied opportunities to build their social skills and negotiate complex interactions, thus contributing to their continued unpopularity. Further, biological effects can occur due to unpopularity, as social rejection can activate genes that lead to an inflammatory response.

According to Stopbullying.gov (2016), a federal government website managed by the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, bullying is defined as unwanted, aggressive behavior among school aged children that involves a real or perceived power imbalance. Further, the aggressive behavior happens more than once or has the potential to be repeated. There are different types of bullying, including verbal bullying, which is saying or writing mean things, teasing, name calling, taunting, threatening, or making inappropriate sexual comments. Social bullying, also referred to as relational bullying, involves spreading rumors, purposefully excluding someone from a group, or embarrassing someone on purpose. Physical Bullying involves hurting a person’s body or possessions.

A more recent form of bullying is cyberbullying, which involves electronic technology. Examples of cyberbullying include sending mean text messages or emails, creating fake profiles, and posting embarrassing pictures, videos or rumors on social networking sites. Children who experience cyberbullying have a harder time getting away from the behavior because it can occur any time of day and without being in the presence of others. Additional concerns of cyberbullying include that messages and images can be posted anonymously, distributed quickly, and be difficult to trace or delete. Children who are cyberbullied are more likely to: experience in-person bullying, be unwilling to attend school, receive poor grades, use alcohol and drugs, skip school, have lower self-esteem, and have more health problems (Stopbullying.gov, 2016). The National Center for Education Statistics and Bureau of Justice statistics indicate that in 2010-2011, 28% of students in grades 6-12 experienced bullying and 7% experienced cyberbullying. The 2013 Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System, which monitors six types of health risk behaviors, indicate that 20% of students in grades 9-12 experienced bullying and 15% experienced cyberbullying (Stopbullying.gov, 2016).

Those at risk for bullying: Bullying can happen to anyone, but some students are at an increased risk for being bullied including lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered (LGBT) youth, those with disabilities, and those who are socially isolated. Additionally, those who are perceived as different, weak, less popular, overweight, or having low self-esteem, have a higher likelihood of being bullied. 200 Those who are more likely to bully: Bullies are often thought of as having low self-esteem, and then bully others to feel better about themselves. Although this can occur, many bullies in fact have high levels of self-esteem. They possess considerable popularity and social power and have well-connected peer relationships. They do not lack self-esteem, and instead lack empathy for others. They like to dominate or be in charge of others.

Those who are more likely to bully: Bullies are often thought of as having low self-esteem, and then bully others to feel better about themselves. Although this can occur, many bullies in fact have high levels of self-esteem. They possess considerable popularity and social power and have well-connected peer relationships. They do not lack self-esteem, and instead lack empathy for others. They like to dominate or be in charge of others.

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Bullied children often do not ask for help: Unfortunately, most children do not let adults know that they are being bullied. Some fear retaliation from the bully, while others are too embarrassed to ask for help. Those who are socially isolated may not know who to ask for help or believe that no one would care or assist them if they did ask for assistance. Consequently, it is important for parents and teacher to know the warning signs that may indicate a child is being bullied. These include: unexplainable injuries, lost or destroyed possessions, changes in eating or sleeping patterns, declining school grades, not wanting to go to school, loss of friends, decreased selfesteem and/or self-destructive behaviors.

Family Life

Family Tasks: One of the ways to assess the quality of family life is to consider the tasks of families. Berger (2014) lists five family functions:

  • Providing food, clothing and shelter
  • Encouraging learning
  • Developing self-esteem
  • Nurturing friendships with peers
  • Providing harmony and stability

Notice that in addition to providing food, shelter, and clothing, families are responsible for helping the child learn, relate to others, and have a confident sense of self. Hopefully, the family will provide a harmonious and stable environment for living. A good home environment is one in which the child’s physical, cognitive, emotional, and social needs are adequately met. Sometimes families emphasize physical needs but ignore cognitive or emotional needs. Other times, families pay close attention to physical needs and academic requirements but may fail to nurture the child’s friendships with peers or guide the child toward developing healthy relationships. Parents might want to consider how it feels to live in the household as a child. The tasks of families listed above are functions that can be fulfilled in a variety of family types-not just intact, two-parent households.

Parenting Styles: As discussed in the previous chapter, parenting styles affect the relationship parents have with their children. During middle and late childhood, children spend less time with parents and more time with peers, and consequently parents may have to modify their approach to parenting to accommodate the child’s growing independence. The authoritative style, which incorporates reason and engaging in joint decision-making whenever possible may be the most effective approach (Berk, 2007). However, Asian-American, African-American, and Mexican-American parents are more likely than European-Americans to use an authoritarian style of parenting. This authoritarian style of parenting that uses strict discipline and focuses on obedience is also tempered with acceptance and warmth on the part of the parents. Children raised in this manner tend to be confident, successful and happy (Chao, 2001; Stewart & Bond, 2002).

Living Arrangements: Certainly, the living arrangements of children have changed significantly over the years. In 1960, 92% of children resided with married parents, while only 5% had parents who were divorced or separated and 1% resided with parents who had never been married. By 2008, 70% of children resided with married parents, 15% had parent who were divorced or separated, and 14% resided with parents who had never married (Pew Research Center, 2010). In 2017, only 65% of children lived with two married parents, while 32% (24 million children younger than 18) lived with an unmarried parent (Livingston, 2018). Some 3% of children were not living with any parents, according to the U.S. Census Bureau data.

Most children in unmarried parent households in 2017 were living with a solo mother (21%), but a growing share were living with cohabiting parents (7%) or a sole father (4%) (see Figure 5.24). The increase in children living with solo or cohabiting parents was thought to be due to the overall declines in marriage, as well as increases in divorce. Of concern is that living with only one parent was associated with a household’s lower economic situation. Specifically, 30% of solo mothers, 17% of solo fathers, and 16% of families with a cohabitating couple lived in poverty. In contrast, only 8% of married couples lived below the poverty line (Livingston, 2018).

Figure 5.24

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Lesbian and Gay Parenting: Research has consistently shown that the children of lesbian and gay parents are as successful as those of heterosexual parents, and consequently efforts are being made to ensure that gay and lesbian couples are provided with the same legal rights as heterosexual couples when adopting children (American Civil Liberties Union, 2016).

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Patterson (2013) reviewed more than 25 years of social science research on the development of children raised by lesbian and gay parents and found no evidence of detrimental effects. In fact, research has demonstrated that children of lesbian and gay parents are as well-adjusted overall as those of heterosexual parents. Specifically, research comparing children based on parental sexual orientation has not shown any differences in the development of gender identity, gender role development, or sexual orientation. Additionally, there were no differences between the children of lesbian or gay parents and those of heterosexual parents in separation-individuation, behavior problems, self-concept, locus of control, moral judgment, school adjustment, intelligence, victimization, and substance use. Further, research has consistently found that children and adolescents of gay and lesbian parents report normal social relationships with family members, peers, and other adults. Patterson concluded that there is no evidence to support legal discrimination or policy bias against lesbian and gay parents.

Divorce: Using families in the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, Weaver and Schofield (2015) found that children from divorced families had significantly more behavior problems than those from a matched sample of children from non-divorced families. These problems were evident immediately after the separation and also in early and middle adolescence. An analysis of divorce factors indicated that children exhibited more externalizing behaviors if the family had fewer financial resources before the separation. It was hypothesized that the lower income and lack of educational and community resources contributed to the stress involved in the divorce. Additional factors contributing to children’s behavior problems included a post-divorce home that was less supportive and stimulating, and a mother that was less sensitive and more depressed.

Additional concerns include that the child will grieve the loss of the parent they no longer see as frequently. The child may also grieve about other family members that are no longer available. Very often, divorce means a change in the amount of money coming into the household. Custodial mothers experience a 25% to 50% drop in their family income, and even five years after the divorce they have reached only 94% of their pre-divorce family income (Anderson, 2018). As a result, children experience new constraints on spending or entertainment. School-aged children, especially, may notice that they can no longer have toys, clothing or other items to which they have grown accustomed. Or it may mean that there is less eating out or being able to afford participation in extracurricular activities. The custodial parent may experience stress at not being able to rely on child support payments or having the same level of income as before. This can affect decisions regarding healthcare, vacations, rents, mortgages and other expenditures, and the stress can result in less happiness and relaxation in the home. The parent who has to take on more work may also be less available to the children. Children may also have to adjust to other changes accompanying a divorce. The divorce might mean moving to a new home and changing schools or friends. It might mean leaving a neighborhood that has meant a lot to them as well.

Relationships of adult children of divorce are identified as more problematic than those adults from intact homes. For 25 years, Hetherington and Kelly (2002) followed children of divorce and those whose parents stayed together. The results indicated that 25% of adults whose parents had divorced experienced social, emotional, or psychological problems compared with only 10% of those whose parents remained married. For example, children of divorce have more difficulty forming and sustaining intimate relationships as young adults, are more dissatisfied with their marriage, and consequently more likely to get divorced themselves (Arkowitz & Lilienfeld, 2013). One of the most commonly cited long-term effects of divorce is that children of divorce may have lower levels of education or occupational status (Richter & Lemola, 2017). This may be a consequence of lower income and resources for funding education rather than to divorce per se. In those households where, economic hardship does not occur, there may be no impact on long-term economic status (Drexler, 2005).

According to Arkowitz and Lilienfeld (2013), long-term harm from parental divorce is not inevitable, however, and children can navigate the experience successfully. A variety of factors can positively contribute to the child’s adjustment. For example, children manage better when parents limit conflict, and provide warmth, emotional support and appropriate discipline. Further, children cope better when they reside with a well-functioning parent and have access to social support from peers and other adults. Those at a higher socioeconomic status may fare better because some of the negative consequences of divorce are a result of financial hardship rather than divorce per se (Anderson, 2014; Drexler, 2005). It is important when considering the research findings on the consequences of divorce for children to consider all the factors that can influence the outcome, as some of the negative consequences associated with divorce are due to preexisting problems (Anderson, 2014). Although they may experience more problems than children from non-divorced families, most children of divorce lead happy, well-adjusted lives and develop strong, positive relationships with their custodial parent (Seccombe & Warner, 2004).

Children from single-parent families talk to their mothers more often than children of two-parent families (McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994). In a study of college-age respondents, Arditti (1999) found that increasing closeness and a movement toward more democratic parenting styles was experienced. Others have also found that relationships between mothers and children become closer and stronger (Guttman, 1993) and suggest that greater equality and less rigid parenting is beneficial after divorce (Steward, Copeland, Chester, Malley, & Barenbaum, 1997).

Certain characteristics of the child can also facilitate post-divorce adjustment. Specifically, children with an easygoing temperament, who problem-solve well, and seek social support manage better after divorce. A further protective factor for children is intelligence (Weaver & Schofield, 2015). Children with higher IQ scores appear to be buffered from the effects of divorce. Children may be given more opportunity to discover their own abilities and gain independence that fosters self-esteem. If divorce means a reduction in tension, the child may feel relief. Overall, not all children of divorce suffer negative consequences (Hetherington & Kelly, 2002). Furstenberg and Cherlin (1991) believe that the primary factor influencing the way that children adjust to divorce is the way the custodial parent adjusts to the divorce. If that parent is adjusting well, the children will benefit. This may explain a good deal of the variation we find in children of divorce.

Is cohabitation and remarriage more difficult than divorce for the child? The remarriage of a parent may be a more difficult adjustment for a child than the divorce of a parent (Seccombe & Warner, 2004). Parents and children typically have different ideas of how the stepparent should act. Parents and stepparents are more likely to see the stepparent’s role as that of parent. A more democratic style of parenting may become more authoritarian after a parent remarries. Biological parents are more likely to continue to be involved with their children jointly when neither parent has remarried. They are least likely to jointly be involved if the father has remarried and the mother has not. Cohabitation can be difficult for children to adjust to because cohabiting relationships in the United States tend to be short-lived. About 50 percent last less than 2 years (Brown, 2000). The child who starts a relationship with the parent’s live-in partner may have to sever this relationship later. Even in long-term cohabiting relationships, once it is over, continued contact with the child is rare.

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Blended Families: One in six children (16%) live in blended families (Pew Research Center, 2015). As can be seen in Figure 5.27, Hispanic, black and white children are equally likely to be living in a blended family. In contrast, children of Asian descent are more likely to be living with two married parents, often in their first marriage. Blended families are not new. In the 1700-1800s there were many blended families, but they were created because someone died and remarried. Most blended families today are a result of divorce and remarriage, and such origins lead to new considerations. Blended families are different from intact families and more complex in a number of ways that can pose unique challenges to those who seek to form successful blended family relationships (Visher & Visher, 1985). Children may be a part of two households, each with different rules that can be confusing.

Figure 5.27

middle childhood development task is

Members in blended families may not be as sure that others care and may require more demonstrations of affection for reassurance. For example, stepparents expect more gratitude and acknowledgment from the stepchild than they would with a biological child. Stepchildren experience more uncertainty/insecurity in their relationship with the parent and fear the parents will see them as sources of tension. Stepparents may feel guilty for a lack of feelings they may initially have toward their partner’s children. Children who are required to respond to the parent’s new mate as though they were the child’s “real” parent often react with hostility, rebellion, or withdrawal. This occurs especially if there has not been time for the relationship to develop.

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Adapted from Chapter 5 from Lifespan Development: A Psychological Perspective Second Edition by Martha Lally and Suzanne Valentine-French under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 unported license.

Human Behavior and the Social Environment I Copyright © 2020 by Susan Tyler is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Development During Middle Childhood: The Years From Six to Twelve

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Development During Middle Childhood

The years from six to twelve.

For the first time, a report focuses specifically on middle childhood—a discrete, pivotal period of development. In this review of research, experts examine the physical health and cognitive development of 6- to 12-year-old children as well as their surroundings: school and home environment, ecocultural setting, and family and peer relationships.

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Halfon N, Forrest CB, Lerner RM, et al., editors. Handbook of Life Course Health Development [Internet]. Cham (CH): Springer; 2018. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-47143-3_5

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Handbook of Life Course Health Development [Internet].

Middle childhood: an evolutionary-developmental synthesis.

Marco DelGiudice .

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Published online: November 21, 2017.

Middle childhood—conventionally going from about 6–11 years of age—is a crucial yet underappreciated phase of human development. On the surface, middle childhood may appear like a slow-motion interlude between the spectacular transformations of infancy and early childhood and those of adolescence. In reality, this life stage is anything but static: the transition from early to middle childhood heralds a global shift in cognition, motivation, and social behavior, with profound and wide-ranging implications for the development of personality, sex differences, and even psychopathology.

In the last two decades, converging theories and findings from anthropology, primatology, evolutionary psychology, endocrinology, and behavior genetics have revolutionized our understanding of middle childhood. In this chapter, I show how these diverse contributions can be synthesized into an integrated evolutionary-developmental model of middle childhood. I begin by reviewing the main evolved functions of middle childhood and the cognitive, behavioral, and hormonal processes that characterize this life stage. Then, I introduce the idea that the transition to middle childhood works as a switch point in the development of life history strategies and discuss three insights in the nature of middle childhood that arise from an integrated approach.

Middle childhood—conventionally going from about 6–11 years of age—is a crucial yet underappreciated phase of human development. On the surface, middle childhood may appear like a slow-motion interlude between the spectacular transformations of infancy and early childhood and those of adolescence. In reality, this life stage is anything but static: the transition from early to middle childhood heralds a global shift in cognition, motivation, and social behavior, with profound and wide-ranging implications for the development of personality, sex differences, and even psychopathology (Table 1 ).

Table 1

Development in middle childhood

In the last two decades, converging theories and findings from anthropology, primatology, evolutionary psychology, endocrinology, and behavior genetics have revolutionized our understanding of middle childhood. In this chapter, I show how these diverse contributions can be synthesized into an integrated evolutionary-developmental model of middle childhood. I begin by reviewing the main evolved functions of middle childhood and the cognitive, behavioral, and hormonal processes that characterize this life stage. Then, I introduce the idea that the transition to middle childhood works as a switch point in the development of life history strategies (Del Giudice et al. 2009 , 2012 ; Del Giudice and Belsky 2011 ) and discuss three insights in the nature of middle childhood that arise from an integrated approach. This chapter was originally published as a short paper in the journal Child Development Perspectives (Del Giudice 2014a ). It is reprinted here with updated references and a new section on the model’s implications for health development in a life course perspective (LCHD).

1. What Is Middle Childhood?

Middle childhood is one of the main stages of human development, marked by the eruption of the first permanent molars around age 6 and the onset of androgen secretion by the adrenal glands at about 6–8 years (Bogin 1997 ). In middle childhood, body growth slows considerably, usually following a small mid-growth spurt. At the same time, muscularity increases and the body starts accumulating fat (the adiposity rebound ; Hochberg 2008 ), while sex differences in body composition become more pronounced (Del Giudice et al. 2009 ; Wells 2007 ). Figure 1 places middle childhood in the broader context of human growth from conception to adolescence.

Developmental trajectories of human growth and sex hormones production, from conception to adolescence. Arrows show the landmark events that characterize middle childhood (Reproduced from Del Giudice 2014a)

In biological terms, middle childhood corresponds to human juvenility —a stage in which the individual is still sexually immature, but no longer dependent on parents for survival. In social mammals and primates, juvenility is a phase of intense learning—often accomplished through play—in which youngsters practice adult behavioral patterns and acquire essential social and foraging skills. Indeed, the duration of juvenility in primates correlates strongly with the size and complexity of social groups, as well as with cortical brain volume (Joffe 1997 ). Social learning in juvenility can be understood as investment in embodied capital —skills and knowledge that cost time and effort to acquire but increase an individual’s performance and reproductive success (Kaplan et al. 2000 ).

Human children are no exception to this pattern. Social learning is universally recognized as a key evolved function of middle childhood and is enabled by a global reorganization of cognitive functioning known as the five-to-seven shift (Weisner 1996 ). By age 6, the brain has almost reached its maximum size and receives a decreasing share of the body’s glucose after the consumption peak of early childhood (Fig. 1 ; Giedd and Rapoport 2010 ; Kuzawa et al. 2014 ). However, brain development proceeds at a sustained pace, with intensive synaptogenesis in cortical areas (gray matter) and rapid maturation of axonal connections (white matter; Lebel et al. 2008 ). The transition to middle childhood is marked by a simultaneous increase in perceptual abilities (including a transition from local to global visual processing), motor control (including the emergence of adult-like walking), and complex reasoning skills (Bjorklund 2011 ; Poirel et al. 2011 ; Weisner 1996 ). The most dramatic changes probably occur in the domain of self-regulation and executive functions: children become much more capable of inhibiting unwanted behavior, maintaining sustained attention, making and following plans, and so forth (Best et al. 2009 ; Weisner 1996 ; see also McClelland et al. 2017 ). Parallel improvements take place in mentalizing (the ability to understand and represent mental states) and moral reasoning, as children become able to consider multiple perspectives and conflicting goals (Jambon and Smetana 2014 ; Lagattuta et al. 2009 ).

In traditional societies, older relatives—especially parents and grandparents—are the main sources of knowledge for juveniles, supplemented by peers and—where available—professional teachers. Storytellin g—both fictional and based in real events—is a powerful technology for transmitting knowledge about foraging and social skills, avoidance of dangers, topography, wayfinding, and social roles and norms (Scalise Sugiyama 2011 ). Storytelling mimics the format of episodic memories, providing the child with a rich source of indirect experience (Scalise Sugiyama 2011). Intriguingly, episodic memory shows dramatic and sustained improvements across middle childhood (Ghetti and Bunge 2012 ).

However, children at this age are not just learning and playing. Cross-culturally, middle childhood is the time when children are expected to start helping with domestic tasks—such as caring for younger siblings, collecting food and water, tending animals, and helping adults prepare food (Bogin 1997 ; Lancy and Grove 2011 ; Scalise Sugiyama 2011; Weisner 1996 ). In favorable ecologies, juveniles can contribute substantially to family subsistence (Kramer 2011 ). Thanks to marked increases in spatial cognition—reflected in the emerging ability to understand maps—and navigational skills, children become able to memorize complex routes and find their way without adult supervision (Bjorklund 2011 ; Piccardi et al. 2014 ). The important role of juveniles in collecting and preparing food may explain why the emotion of disgust does not fully develop until middle childhood (Rozin 1990a ).

The transition to middle childhood is typically associated with a strong separation in gender roles, even in societies where tasks are not rigidly assigned by sex. Spontaneous sex segregation of boys and girls peaks during these years, as does the frequency of sexually differentiated play (Del Giudice et al. 2009 ). On a broader social level, cross-cultural evidence shows that juveniles start “getting noticed” by adults—that is, they begin to be viewed fully as people with their own individuality, personality, and social responsibility (Lancy and Grove 2011 ).

In summary, the life stage of juvenility/middle childhood has two major interlocking functions: social learning and social integration in a system of roles, norms, activities, and shared knowledge. While children are still receiving sustained investment from parents and other relatives—in the form of food, protection, knowledge, and so forth—they also start to actively contribute to their family economy. By providing resources and sharing the burden of child care, juveniles can boost their parents’ reproductive potential. The dual nature of juveniles as both receivers and providers explains many psychological features of middle childhood and has likely played a major role in the evolution of human life history (Kramer 2011 ).

1.1. Adrenarche

The transition to middle childhood is coordinated by a remarkable endocrinological event: the awakening of the adrenal glands, or adrenarche (Auchus and Rainey 2004 ; Hochberg 2008 ). Starting at about 6–8 years—with much individual variation and only minor differences between males and females—adrenal glands begin to secrete increasing amounts of androgens (see Fig. 1 ), mainly dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfate (DHEAS). Adrenal androgens have only minor effects on physical development, but they have powerful effects on brain functioning. DHEA and DHEAS promote neurogenesis and modulate gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glutamate receptors; moreover, DHEA can act directly on androgen and estrogen receptors. Even more important, adrenal androgens can be converted to estrogen or testosterone in the brain (Campbell 2006 ; Del Giudice et al. 2009 ). As sex hormones , adrenal androgens play a twofold role: They activate sexually differentiated brain pathways that had been previously organized by the hormonal surges of prenatal development and infancy (Fig. 1 ), and they further organize brain development along sexually differentiated trajectories (Del Giudice et al. 2009 ).

Adrenal androgens likely provide a major impulse for many of the psychological changes of middle childhood (Campbell 2006 , 2011 ; Del Giudice et al. 2009 ), including the emergence and intensification of sex differences across domains (see Table 1 ). Since the age of adrenarche correlates strongly with that of gonadarche (the awakening of the testes/ovaries that marks the beginning of puberty; Hochberg 2008 ), human development shows a peculiar pattern in which sexually differentiated brain pathways are activated several years before the development of secondary sexual characteristics. This developmental pattern (shared by chimpanzees and, to a lesser extent, gorillas; Bernstein et al. 2012 ) results in a temporary decoupling between physical and behavioral development, consistent with the idea of middle childhood as a sexually differentiated phase of social learning and experimentation (Geary 2010 ). Moreover, adrenal androgens promote extended brain plasticity through synaptogenesis and may play an important role in shifting the allocation of the body’s energetic resources away from brain development and toward the accumulation of muscle and fat in preparation for puberty (Campbell 2006 , 2011 ; see also Kuzawa et al. 2014 ).

2. The Transition to Middle Childhood as a Developmental Switch Point

The evolutionary model of middle childhood sketched in the previous section can be enriched and extended by considering the role of adrenarche as a developmental switch (Del Giudice et al. 2009 ). The concept of a developmental switch was introduced by West-Eberhard ( 2003 ); a switch is a regulatory mechanism that activates at a specific point in development, collects input from the external environment or the state of the organism, and shifts the individual along alternative pathways—ultimately resulting in the development of alternative phenotypes (morphological, physiological, or behavioral traits of an organism). For example, a switch may regulate the development of aggressive behavior so that safe conditions entrain the development of low levels of aggression, whereas threatening environments trigger high levels of aggression. Developmental switches enable adaptive plasticity —the ability of an organism to adjust its phenotype to match the local environment in a way that promotes biological fitness (West-Eberhard 2003 ). In other words, plastic organisms track the state of the environment—usually through indirect cues—and use this information to develop alternative phenotypes that tend to promote survival or reproduction under different conditions.

Developmental switches work in a modular fashion (see Fig. 2 ). Activation of a switch leads to the coordinated expression of different genes—both those involved in the regulatory mechanism itself and those involved in the production of the new phenotype. Moreover, alternative phenotypes (A and B in Fig. 2 ) involve the expression of modular packages of genes specific to each phenotype. Another key aspect of developmental switches is that they integrate variation in the environment with individual differences in the genes that regulate the switch. For example, different individuals may have genetically different thresholds for switching between aggressive and nonaggressive phenotypes. Finally, the embodied effects of past experiences and conditions (e.g., an individual’s previous exposure to stress or nutritional conditions early in life) may also modulate how the switch functions, allowing the organism to integrate information over time and across different life stages (Del Giudice 2014b ; Ellis 2013 ). In many instances, the effects of past experience on developmental switches may be mediated by epigenetic mechanisms (see Meaney 2010 ).

The concept of a developmental switch. A regulatory mechanism, which may operate through hormonal signals, integrates current and past information from the environment with the individual’s genotype. As a result, the individual’s developmental (more...)

The concept of a developmental switch point resembles that of a sensitive period , in that the organism is maximally responsive to some environmental input. The crucial difference is that, because genetic and environmental inputs converge in the regulatory mechanism, a developmental switch amplifies both environmental and genetic effects on the phenotype (West-Eberhard 2003 ). Indeed, the activation of a developmental switch exposes many new potential sources of genetic variation, including the genes involved in the regulatory mechanism and in the expression of the new phenotypes (Fig. 2 ).

2.1. A Switch Point in Life History Development

The role of adrenarche as a developmental switch is not limited to a single trait; in fact, the transition to middle childhood (or juvenile transition ; Del Giudice et al. 2009 ) encompasses all the major domains of behavior—from learning and self-regulation to attachment and sexuality (see Table 1 ). My colleagues and I (Del Giudice and Belsky 2011 ; Del Giudice et al. 2009 , 2012 ) have argued that the transition to middle childhood is a switch point in the development of life history strategies , which are coordinate suites of morphological, physiological, and behavioral traits that determine how organisms allocate their resources to key biological activities such as growth, reproduction, mating, and parenting (for a non-technical overview of life history theory, see Del Giudice et al. 2015 ). At the level of behavior, individual differences in life history strategy are reflected in patterns of self-regulation, aggression, cooperation and prosociality, attachment, sexuality, and so forth (Del Giudice and Belsky 2011 ; Del Giudice et al. 2009 , 2011 ; Ellis et al. 2009 ). Although life history strategies are partly heritable, they also show a degree of plasticity in response to the quality of the environment, including the level of danger and unpredictability –embodied in the experience of early stress—and the availability of adequate nutritional resources. In a nutshell, dangerous and unpredictable environments tend to favor fast strategies characterized by early reproduction, sexual promiscuity, unstable relationships, impulsivity, risk taking, aggression, and exploitative tendencies, whereas safe and predictable environments tend to entrain slow strategies characterized by late reproduction, stable relationships, high self-control, aversion to risk, and prosociality. Slow strategies are also favored by nutritional scarcity when danger is low (see Del Giudice et al. 2016 ; Ellis et al. 2009 ).

Our argument is that adrenarche coordinates the expression of individual differences in life history strategy by integrating individual genetic variation with information about the child’s social and physical environment collected throughout infancy and early childhood (Belsky et al. 1991 ). The stress response system plays a major role in gathering and storing information about environmental safety, predictability, and availability of resources; adrenarche contributes by translating that information into adaptive, sexually differentiated patterns of behavior (Del Giudice et al. 2011 ; Ellis and Del Giudice 2014 ). Consistent with this view, both early relational stress and early nutrition have been found to modulate the timing of adrenarche (Ellis and Essex 2007 ; Hochberg 2008 ). It is no coincidence that the first sexual and romantic attractions typically develop in middle childhood, in tandem with the intensification of sexual play (Bancroft 2003 ; Herdt and McClintock 2000 ). By interacting with peers and adults, juveniles receive feedback about the effectiveness of their nascent behavioral strategies. The information collected during middle childhood feeds into the next developmental switch point, that of gonadarche (Ellis 2013 ); the transition to adolescence offers an opportunity for youth to adjust or revise their initial strategy before attaining sexual and reproductive maturity (Del Giudice and Belsky 2011 ).

The role of adrenarche as a switch point in life history development adds another level of complexity to the biological profile of juvenility. Figure 3 outlines an integrated evolutionary-developmental model that brings together the various strands of theory and evidence reviewed in this chapter.

An integrated evolutionary -developmental model of middle childhood. Adrenarche is shown as a switch in the development of life history strategies, as well as a key mechanism underlying the normative changes of middle childhood and the emergence and intensification (more...)

3. Three Insights in the Nature of Middle Childhood

3.1. insight 1: social integration and social competition are complementary functions of middle childhood.

Evolutionary accounts of middle childhood typically focus on learning, helping, and other forms of social integration. A life history approach emphasizes the need to consider social competition as a crucial, complementary function of human juvenility. In the peer group, children compete for vital social resources—status, reputation, allies, and friends. While learning and play are relatively risk-free, they are not without consequences. The social position achieved in middle childhood is a springboard for adolescence and adulthood; popularity and centrality within the peer network put a child at a considerable advantage, with potentially long-term effects on mating and reproductive success (Del Giudice et al. 2009 ).

Physical and relational aggression are obvious tactics for gaining influence, but social competition also occurs through prosocial behaviors such as forming alliances, doing favors, and displaying valuable skills. Indeed, managing the balance between prosocial and coercive tactics is an important part of developing social skills (Hawley 2014 ). More broadly, competition shapes many aspects of cognitive and behavioral development in middle childhood; for example, increased pragmatic abilities allow children to gossip, joke, tease, and engage in verbal duels—all forms of social competition mediated by language (Locke and Bogin 2006 ). Intensifying social competition also contributes to explain the early peak of psychopathology onset observed in middle childhood, characterized by increasing rates of externalizing disorders (e.g., conduct disorder), anxiety disorders (including social phobia), and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; Del Giudice et al. 2009 ).

3.2. Insight 2: Sexual Selection Contributes to the Emergence and Intensification of Sex Differences in Middle Childhood

By determining children’s initial place in social networks and hierarchies, competition in middle childhood indirectly affects their ability to attract sexual and romantic partners later. In other words, middle childhood is a likely target for sexual selection —that is, natural selection arising from the processes of choosing mates ( mate choice ) and competing for mates (mating competition ). My colleagues and I (Del Giudice et al. 2009 ) argued that sexual selection is one reason why sex differences emerge and intensify in middle childhood. In particular, sex differences in physical aggression increase markedly, in tandem with sex differences in muscularity and play fighting. At the same time, attachment styles begin to diverge between males and females, with insecurely attached boys becoming more avoidant and insecure girls becoming more preoccupied/ambivalent (Del Giudice 2009 ; Del Giudice and Belsky 2010 ). Different attachment styles are conducive to different social strategies and may be adaptive in regulating children’s nascent relationships with peers. There is initial evidence that attachment styles in middle childhood reflect the effects of prenatal sex hormones, which according to our model are activated by adrenal androgens (Del Giudice and Angeleri 2016 ). Sexual selection also has indirect implications for the development of psychopathology; for example, marked sex differences in the prevalence of conduct disorders become apparent at the beginning of middle childhood, likely reflecting the stronger role of aggression in boys’ social competition (see Del Giudice et al. 2009 ; Martel 2013 ).

3.3. Insight 3: In Middle Childhood, Heightened Sensitivity to the Environment Goes Hand in Hand with the Expression of New Genetic Factors

When an organism goes through a developmental switch point, inputs from the environment combine with the individual’s genotype to determine the resulting phenotype. For example, when adrenal androgens begin to increase during the transition to middle childhood, they activate many hormone-sensitive brain pathways that have been dormant since infancy. In doing so, they release previously hidden genetic variation (Del Giudice et al. 2009 ). Thus, middle childhood should be characterized by a mixture of heightened sensitivity to the environment—possibly mediated by newly activated epigenetic mechanisms (Meaney 2010 ) and expression of new genetic factors.

Evidence of increased sensitivity to the environment in middle childhood is not hard to find. Two intriguing and little-known examples concern the development of food preferences and erotic fetishes. In cultures where chili pepper is an essential part of the diet, children tend to dislike spicy food until middle childhood and then increase rapidly their preference for the flavor of chili as a result of social learning (Rozin 1990b ). Fetishistic attractions also tend to form in middle childhood, with the onset of pleasurable sensations toward the object of the fetish (e.g., rubber, shoes) that later become fully eroticized (Lawrence 2009 ). The onset of fetishistic attractions is part of a generalized awakening of sexuality in middle childhood (Table 1 ) and illustrates the potential for rapid plasticity with long-lasting outcomes. Enhanced sensitivity to the environment extends beyond individual learning to acquiring social norms: for example, cross-cultural differences in prosocial behavior are absent in young children but emerge clearly during middle childhood (House et al. 2013 ).

On the genetic side of the equation, general intelligence and language skills increase markedly in heritability from early to middle childhood. In both cases, new genetic factors come into play around age 7 (Davis et al. 2009 ; Hayiou-Thomas et al. 2012 ). Studies of prosociality and aggression find the same pattern, with new genetic influences on behavior emerging during the transition to middle childhood (Knafo and Plomin 2006 ; van Beijsterveldt et al. 2003 ). These genetic findings dovetail with converging evidence that individual changes in levels of aggression are especially frequent during the transition to juvenility (Del Giudice et al. 2009 ).

4. Implications for Health Development

The main focus of this chapter has been on psychological development, but the implications of the evolutionary-developmental synthesis extend to both mental and physical health. The transition to middle childhood seems to be a switch point for a number of growth and metabolic processes that have long-term impact on health, including the risk for obesity and type 2 diabetes (Hochberg 2008 , 2010 ). These processes become apparent in middle childhood (e.g., anticipated onset of the adiposity rebound, rapid weight gain, onset of insulin resistance), but respond to the accumulated effects of early nutrition and other sources of stress, starting from prenatal life (e.g., intrauterine growth restriction; see Salsberry et al. 2017 ). From the standpoint of the model presented here, one can predict that metabolic changes in middle childhood will reflect both the “programming” effects of the early environment (Gluckman et al. 2005 ) and the activation of new genetic factors. Consistent with this view, a recent study has documented significant genetic correlations between puberty timing, insulin levels, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease (Day et al. 2015 ). Moreover, some of those factors are likely to be expressed in sexually differentiated ways, and the different patterns of health risk associated with early adrenarche and puberty in boys and girls may be usefully interpreted in light of different constraints on life history trade-offs in the two sexes (see Hochberg 2010 ). These predictions are consistent with the nonlinear and multilevel nature of developmental processes—one of the guiding principles of LCHD emphasized in this volume.

Another intriguing implication of this perspective is that the juvenile transition may be a promising—and still virtually unexplored—developmental window for intervention. While intervening to change early life conditions may be desirable in view of their long-term effects, this approach is not always possible or realistic. In addition, prenatal factors such as fetal nutrition and gestational stress may be especially difficult to target, as they do not simply mirror the mother’s conditions but reflect a complex—and partially conflictual—interplay between fetal and maternal factors (e.g., Del Giudice 2012 ; Gangestad et al. 2012 ; Haig 1993 ). However, the logic of developmental switches (Fig. 2 ) suggests that the activation of the mechanisms that initiate the switch (e.g., adrenarche) may correspond to a transient phase of instability and openness in the system. If so, it should be possible to exploit that phase to maximize the efficacy of focused interventions—including pharmacological ones. Of course, this would require a better understanding of how different hormonal and neurobiological systems interact during the transition to middle childhood; the existing evidence points to a central role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-thyroid (HPT) axis, and the insulin/insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) signaling systems as mediators of life history allocations, not just in humans but in other vertebrates as well (see Del Giudice et al. 2015 ; Ellis and Del Giudice 2014 ). Those systems might be used as direct targets for intervention, but also as “endophenotypes” or early indicators of the efficacy of interventions. Importantly, neurobiological systems such as the HPA axis regulate both metabolism and behavior—as components of coordinated life history allocations—so that many of the same processes may be relevant to both physical and mental health. The idea that intervening during a biological transition may afford more leverage to alter developmental trajectories resonates with two key principles of LCHD, that is, the nonlinearity of developmental processes and their time sensitivity.

Probably the most important take-home point of an evolutionary-developmental approach is that researchers should be more cautious in assuming that undesirable developmental outcomes reflect dysregulation of a biological system (e.g., see Kim et al. 2017 ) and more open to the possibility that those outcomes may be part of adaptive—or formerly adaptive—strategies for survival and reproduction. As I have argued in detail elsewhere (Del Giudice 2014b , c ), a life history framework is especially useful in teasing out the logic of potentially adaptive combinations of traits, highlighting critical factors in the environment, and bridging behavioral development with physical growth trajectories. As an example, consider the association between intrauterine growth restriction and early maturation in children (Hochberg 2008 , 2010 ). This can be interpreted as a manifestation of physiological dysregulation due to prenatal adversity or as an adaptive programming effect on children’s metabolic processes and life history trajectories. This alternative interpretation is supported by the association between low birth weight, anticipated puberty, and early childbearing in women (e.g., Nettle et al. 2013 ). A third possibility is that low birth weight partly reflects reduced energetic and metabolic investment by the mother during pregnancy, which may be adaptive as a component of a fast life history strategy. If so, the association between reduced fetal growth and earlier sexual maturation may not be fully causal, but rather result—at least in part—from shared genetic, or epigenetic, factors that influence life history strategy in both the mother and the offspring. Clearly, the implications for intervention are going to be quite different depending on which of these scenarios apply.

Another recent example is the finding that early adrenarche is associated with reduced white matter volume in the frontal lobe of children (Klauser et al. 2015 ). Again, the standard interpretation is that early DHEA exposure has a disruptive effect on neurodevelopmental processes; however, it is also possible that different trajectories of brain development—and even associated “symptoms” such as anxiety and aggressive behaviors—may instead reflect alternative strategies on a fast-slow continuum of life history variation. Ellis et al. ( 2012 ) present an extended analysis of adolescent risk-taking from this perspective and discuss several implications for the design of interventions. The LCHD principle that evolution both enables and constrains plasticity is especially relevant in this regard; evolutionary scenarios are not just interesting explanatory “stories,” but can illuminate limits as well as opportunities for intervention. For example, when considering mother-fetus interactions, the existence of partial conflicts of interest on nutrition, cortisol production, and so on suggests that interventions designed to favor the fetus may sometimes have detrimental side effects for the mother and vice versa (see Del Giudice 2014b ; Haig 1993 ).

In considering potential adaptive explanations for apparently pathological outcomes, it is important to remember that biologically adaptive traits may carry substantial costs. Fitness is ultimately about reproductive success; natural selection does not necessarily promote psychological well-being or physical health and may sacrifice survival in exchange for enhanced reproduction. Moreover, even adaptive developmental processes may result in genuinely maladaptive outcomes for some individuals (Frankenhuis and Del Giudice 2012 ). It follows that the existence of substantial psychological, social, or health costs does not automatically qualify a trait or behavior as biologically maladaptive (see Del Giudice 2014b ; Ellis et al. 2012 ; Ellis and Del Giudice 2014 ).

5. Conclusions

We cannot make sense of human development without understanding middle childhood and its many apparent paradoxes. An evolutionary-developmental approach illuminates the complexity of this life stage and shows how different levels of analysis—from genes to society—can be tied together in a coherent synthesis. This emerging view of middle childhood can help developmental scientists appreciate its centrality in the human life history and stimulate ideas for research and intervention. The study of middle childhood may finally be ready to come of age, opening up promising avenues for a better understanding of health development across the life course.

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This chapter contains a modified version of a previously published review and analysis of existing research, written by Marco Del Giudice, that appeared in Child Development Perspectives . Reprinted with permission from: Del Giudice, M. (2014), Middle Childhood: An Evolutionary-Developmental Synthesis. Child Dev Perspect, 8: 193–200. doi:10.1111/cdep.12084.

Open Access This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, duplication, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the work's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if such material is not included in the work's Creative Commons license and the respective action is not permitted by statutory regulation, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to duplicate, adapt or reproduce the material.

  • Cite this Page DelGiudice M. Middle Childhood: An Evolutionary-Developmental Synthesis. 2017 Nov 21. In: Halfon N, Forrest CB, Lerner RM, et al., editors. Handbook of Life Course Health Development [Internet]. Cham (CH): Springer; 2018. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-47143-3_5
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In this Page

  • What Is Middle Childhood?
  • The Transition to Middle Childhood as a Developmental Switch Point
  • Three Insights in the Nature of Middle Childhood
  • Implications for Health Development
  • Conclusions

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OSSE Reconvenes Early Childhood Educator Compensation Task Force

Today, the Office of the State Superintendent of Education (OSSE) announced it will reconvene the Early Childhood Educator Compensation Task Force to help inform the continued implementation of the Early Childhood Educator Pay Equity Fund , a first-in-the-nation initiative to increase compensation of early childhood educators. Abigail Smith, chair of the original task force and former DC Deputy Mayor for Education, will chair the relaunched Task Force, which includes DC child care providers, early learning advocates and experts in child care policy and financing.

“Since launching the Early Childhood Educator Pay Equity Fund in 2022, we’ve heard countless early childhood educators share how these funds have positively impacted their lives,” State Superintendent of Education Dr. Christina Grant said. “The recommendations produced by the Task Force in 2022 have been essential to the program’s early success. Because the work we are doing is unprecedented, we are learning as we go, and this is an appropriate time to take stock of what we’ve learned so far and how we can use it to further refine and improve the Early Childhood Educator Pay Equity Fund. We are excited to reconvene this group of experts to help us do that.”

DC is the first jurisdiction in the country to advance equitable pay for early childhood educators working with children from birth to age 5 in child care settings at scale. In less than two years, OSSE distributed nearly $100 million to providers and facilities through the Early Childhood Educator Pay Equity Fund.

In 2024, the Task Force will review implementation of the Early Childhood Educator Pay Equity Fund to date, including the minimum salaries established for early childhood educators and formula through which funds are distributed to child development facilities, and identify options for improvement and make recommendations to ensure equity, efficiency, and sustainability in the long-term implementation of the fund.

“The Early Childhood Educator Pay Equity Fund is about creating real, lasting change to make sure that DC early childhood educators are equitably compensated and that their pay reflects the crucial importance and value of the work they do every day with young children and families,” Task Force Chair Abigail Smith said. “I am honored to chair the Task Force again and look forward to working closely with fellow members to outline the vision for the continued implementation and success of the program for years to come.”

Task Force members include:

  • Ruqiyyah Anbar-Shaheen, Director of Early Childhood Policy, DC Action
  • Cynthia Davis, Executive Director, DC Family Child Care Association (DCFCCA)
  • Sally D’Italia, Co-chair, DC Directors Exchange
  • Maria Cristina Encinas, Board President, Multicultural Spanish Speaking Providers Association (MSSPA)
  • Marla Dean, Ward 7 Education Council
  • Michael Madowitz, Economist and DC resident
  • Kathy Hollowell-Makle, Executive Director, District of Columbia Association for the Education of Young Children (DCAEYC)
  • Sara Mead, Deputy Superintendent for Early Learning, OSSE
  • Taryn Morrissey, Ph.D., Professor, American University School of Public Affairs
  • Marica Cox Mitchell, Senior Director, Early Childhood, Bainum Family Foundation
  • Kellie D. Salley, Early childhood educator
  • Abigail Smith (Chair), Owner, BlueSkyEd Consulting, Chair of original Early Childhood Educator Equitable Compensation Task Force
  • Wallrick Williams, Ward 4 Resident and parent

Following the Task Force’s recommendations in 2022 , OSSE distributed more than $80 million directly to more than 4,000 early childhood educators between August 2022 to September 2023 through the Early Childhood Educator Pay Equity Fund.

In October 2023, OSSE transitioned to distributing funds to child development facilities to increase wages and salaries paid to staff, and $13.9 million has since been distributed to more than 270 facilities. Additional funds will be distributed in March, June and September 2024 to participating child development facilities.

Additionally, nearly 1,500 early childhood educators and their dependents now receive health insurance through HealthCare4ChildCare, an innovative partnership between OSSE and the DC Health Benefits Exchange that leverages Early Childhood Educator Pay Equity Funds to increase access to and affordability of health insurance for child care educators.

For more information about the Early Childhood Educator Compensation Task Force and Early Childhood Educator Pay Equity Fund, visit osse.dc.gov/ecepayequity .

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  2. Module 2- The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks

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  6. Social and Emotional Development in Middle Childhood

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COMMENTS

  1. Child Development: Middle Childhood (6-8 years old)

    Positive Parenting Tips Following are some things you, as a parent, can do to help your child during this time: Show affection for your child. Recognize her accomplishments. Help your child develop a sense of responsibility—ask him to help with household tasks, such as setting the table.

  2. Introduction

    During middle childhood, children gain access to new settings and encounter pressures that present them with distinctive developmental challenges. The widening world of middle childhood is marked especially by the entry into school of children from all strata of U.S. society.

  3. Havighurst's Developmental Task Theory

    Middle Age (30-60 years old) Later maturity (60 years old and over) If the child completes the "correct" tasks in the "correct" time frame, they will feel happy and accepted by society. Failing to complete these tasks will make the individual unhappy and out of place in society.

  4. 6.5: Psychosocial Development in Middle Childhood

    During the middle childhood, children face the task of Industry versus Inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves to their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate when they don't measure up.

  5. Conclusion: The Status Of Basic Research On Middle Childhood

    The Nature And Tasks Of Middle Childhood. ... Aspects of middle childhood development about which information is especially needed are emotional understanding and expression and its interrelationships with other domains of functioning. At present, most information about children ages 6-12 in this area pertains to their developing knowledge of ...

  6. Developmental Tasks

    Developmental Tasks: the broad "jobs" of childhood that need to be accomplished in each stage in order for children to learn life skills at the appropriate times. The tasks of one stage do not need to be completely mastered before a child begins the tasks of the next stage.

  7. 16 Social Development in Middle Childhood

    The Continuum of Development identifies several root social skills that are emerging in children. Between the ages of 5-8, f riendships become increasingly important. Children start to have a "best friend". Peer relationships are more stable because conflict resolution and problem-solving skills are improving.

  8. Middle Childhood In The Context Of The Family

    Chapter 5. Middle Childhood In The Context Of The Family. Between the time when children enter school and the time they reach adolescence, the family plays a crucial role in socialization, although its role is not so predominant as in the early childhood years. In middle childhood, teachers, peers, coaches, and others outside the family have ...

  9. Middle Childhood

    Learning Outcomes Describe physical growth during middle childhood Examine health risks in school-aged children Growth Rates and Motor Skills Rates of growth generally slow during middle childhood. Typically, a child will gain about 5-7 pounds a year and grow about 2 inches per year.

  10. Lecture: Middle Childhood

    Middle childhood has been called the "golden age" of childhood. Overall, children are relatively healthy during this period. Growth rates slow and children start gaining about 5-7 pounds in weight and 2 inches in height each year. Many children begin to slim down as their torsos become longer.

  11. 12: Middle Childhood

    12.2: Self-Understanding. Children in middle childhood have a more realistic sense of self than do those in early childhood. That exaggerated sense of self as "biggest" or "smartest" or "tallest" gives way to an understanding of one's strengths and weaknesses. This can be attributed to greater experience in comparing one's own ...

  12. Growth & Development: 6 to 12 Years (School Age)

    For 6- to 12-year-olds, there continues to be a wide range of "normal" regarding height, weight and shape. Kids tend to get taller at a steady pace, growing about 2-2.5 inches (6 to 7 centimeters) each year. When it comes to weight, kids gain about 4-7 lbs. (2-3 kg) per year until puberty starts.

  13. Developmental Tasks

    In middle childhood, developmental tasks relate to the expansion of the individual's world outside of the home (e.g., getting along with age mates, learning skills for culturally valued games) and to the mental thrust into the world of adult concepts and communication (e.g., skills in writing, reading, and calculating).

  14. 11: Middle Childhood

    During middle and late childhood children make strides in several areas of cognitive function including the capacity of working memory, their ability to pay attention, and their use of memory strategies. Both changes in the brain and experience foster these abilities. 11.5: Cognitive Processes. As children enter school and learn more about the ...

  15. Development During Middle Childhood

    Chapter 1. Introduction Theoretical Views of Middle Childhood Demographic Overview of Children in Middle Childhood Themes of the Report References Chapter 2. The Biological Substrate and Physical Health in Middle Childhood The Biological Substrate Concepts of Health, Illness, And Disease Physical Health And The Emerging Sense Of Self

  16. Developmental Psychology: Definition, Stages, and Issues

    Middle Childhood Development . This period of development is marked by both physical maturation and the increased importance of social influences as children make their way through elementary school. Kids begin to make their mark on the world as they form friendships, gain competency through schoolwork, and continue to build their unique sense ...

  17. 6.3 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

    From ages 7 to 11, the school-aged child continues to develop in what Piaget referred to as the concrete operational stage of cognitive development. This involves mastering the use of logic in concrete ways. The child can use logic to solve problems tied to their own direct experience but has trouble solving hypothetical problems or considering ...

  18. Chapter 18: Psychosocial Development in Middle Childhood

    Children in middle and late childhood have a more realistic sense of self than do those in early childhood, and they better understand their strengths and weaknesses. This can be attributed to greater experience in comparing their own performance with that of others, and to greater cognitive flexibility.

  19. Development During Middle Childhood: The Years From Six to Twelve

    The Years From Six to Twelve. (1984) Download Free PDF. Read Free Online. Buy Paperback: $125.00. For the first time, a report focuses specifically on middle childhood—a discrete, pivotal period of development. In this review of research, experts examine the physical health and cognitive development of 6- to 12-year-old children as well as ...

  20. Episodic memory during middle childhood: What is developing?

    Abstract. Whereas previous research has concentrated on the emergence of episodic memory during the early years, fewer investigations have explored the details of this development through middle and late childhood. Considerable variation in task demands and testing methodologies have rendered the trajectory of episodic memory during this period ...

  21. School And Children: The Middle Childhood Years

    National Research Council (US) Panel to Review the Status of Basic Research on School-Age Children; Collins WA, editor. Development During Middle Childhood: The Years From Six to Twelve. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 1984. ... This absence of student-initiated learning tasks may provide one explanation for Harter's (1981 ...

  22. National Advisory Child Health and Human Development Council Task Force

    Start Preamble AGENCY: National Institutes of Health, HHS. ACTION: Notice. SUMMARY: The Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) PRGLAC Implementation Working Group of Council is charged with monitoring and reporting on implementation of the recommendations from the PRGLAC. This includes monitoring and reporting on implementation, updating ...

  23. What records are exempted from FERPA?

    This guidance document reviews parents' rights under the PPRA and education officials' obligations in implementing the PPRA. The PPRA applies to the programs and activities of a State educational agency (SEA), local educational agency (LEA), or other recipient of funds under any program funded by the U.S. Department of Education.

  24. Improving care of children with cancer: Network of satellite centers

    Childhood cancer is an important cause of childhood disease burden. It is curable with affordable care in vast majority of cases. About 1,500 - 2,000 new childhood cancer cases are estimated to occur every year in Myanmar. There are two hospitals providing comprehensive childhood cancer services in the country. Yangon Children's Hospital (YCH), located in Yangon city, provides services to ...

  25. Middle Childhood: An Evolutionary-Developmental Synthesis

    Middle childhood is one of the main stages of human development, marked by the eruption of the first permanent molars around age 6 and the onset of androgen secretion by the adrenal glands at about 6-8 years (Bogin 1997 ). In middle childhood, body growth slows considerably, usually following a small mid-growth spurt.

  26. OSSE Reconvenes Early Childhood Educator Compensation Task Force

    Today, the Office of the State Superintendent of Education (OSSE) announced it will reconvene the Early Childhood Educator Compensation Task Force to help inform the continued implementation of the Early Childhood Educator Pay Equity Fund, a first-in-the-nation initiative to increase compensation of early childhood educators.Abigail Smith, chair of the original task force and former DC Deputy ...