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How to Find Sources | Scholarly Articles, Books, Etc.

Published on June 13, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on May 31, 2023.

It’s important to know how to find relevant sources when writing a  research paper , literature review , or systematic review .

The types of sources you need will depend on the stage you are at in the research process , but all sources that you use should be credible , up to date, and relevant to your research topic.

There are three main places to look for sources to use in your research:

Research databases

  • Your institution’s library
  • Other online resources

Table of contents

Library resources, other online sources, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about finding sources.

You can search for scholarly sources online using databases and search engines like Google Scholar . These provide a range of search functions that can help you to find the most relevant sources.

If you are searching for a specific article or book, include the title or the author’s name. Alternatively, if you’re just looking for sources related to your research problem , you can search using keywords. In this case, it’s important to have a clear understanding of the scope of your project and of the most relevant keywords.

Databases can be general (interdisciplinary) or subject-specific.

  • You can use subject-specific databases to ensure that the results are relevant to your field.
  • When using a general database or search engine, you can still filter results by selecting specific subjects or disciplines.

Example: JSTOR discipline search filter

Filtering by discipline

Check the table below to find a database that’s relevant to your research.

Google Scholar

To get started, you might also try Google Scholar , an academic search engine that can help you find relevant books and articles. Its “Cited by” function lets you see the number of times a source has been cited. This can tell you something about a source’s credibility and importance to the field.

Example: Google Scholar “Cited by” function

Google Scholar cited by function

Boolean operators

Boolean operators can also help to narrow or expand your search.

Boolean operators are words and symbols like AND , OR , and NOT that you can use to include or exclude keywords to refine your results. For example, a search for “Nietzsche NOT nihilism” will provide results that include the word “Nietzsche” but exclude results that contain the word “nihilism.”

Many databases and search engines have an advanced search function that allows you to refine results in a similar way without typing the Boolean operators manually.

Example: Project Muse advanced search

Project Muse advanced search

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how to find secondary sources for a research paper

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You can find helpful print sources in your institution’s library. These include:

  • Journal articles
  • Encyclopedias
  • Newspapers and magazines

Make sure that the sources you consult are appropriate to your research.

You can find these sources using your institution’s library database. This will allow you to explore the library’s catalog and to search relevant keywords. You can refine your results using Boolean operators .

Once you have found a relevant print source in the library:

  • Consider what books are beside it. This can be a great way to find related sources, especially when you’ve found a secondary or tertiary source instead of a primary source .
  • Consult the index and bibliography to find the bibliographic information of other relevant sources.

You can consult popular online sources to learn more about your topic. These include:

  • Crowdsourced encyclopedias like Wikipedia

You can find these sources using search engines. To refine your search, use Boolean operators in combination with relevant keywords.

However, exercise caution when using online sources. Consider what kinds of sources are appropriate for your research and make sure the sites are credible .

Look for sites with trusted domain extensions:

  • URLs that end with .edu are educational resources.
  • URLs that end with .gov are government-related resources.
  • DOIs often indicate that an article is published in a peer-reviewed , scientific article.

Other sites can still be used, but you should evaluate them carefully and consider alternatives.

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

  • ChatGPT vs human editor
  • ChatGPT citations
  • Is ChatGPT trustworthy?
  • Using ChatGPT for your studies
  • What is ChatGPT?
  • Chicago style
  • Paraphrasing

 Plagiarism

  • Types of plagiarism
  • Self-plagiarism
  • Avoiding plagiarism
  • Academic integrity
  • Consequences of plagiarism
  • Common knowledge

You can find sources online using databases and search engines like Google Scholar . Use Boolean operators or advanced search functions to narrow or expand your search.

For print sources, you can use your institution’s library database. This will allow you to explore the library’s catalog and to search relevant keywords.

It is important to find credible sources and use those that you can be sure are sufficiently scholarly .

  • Consult your institute’s library to find out what books, journals, research databases, and other types of sources they provide access to.
  • Look for books published by respected academic publishing houses and university presses, as these are typically considered trustworthy sources.
  • Look for journals that use a peer review process. This means that experts in the field assess the quality and credibility of an article before it is published.

When searching for sources in databases, think of specific keywords that are relevant to your topic , and consider variations on them or synonyms that might be relevant.

Once you have a clear idea of your research parameters and key terms, choose a database that is relevant to your research (e.g., Medline, JSTOR, Project MUSE).

Find out if the database has a “subject search” option. This can help to refine your search. Use Boolean operators to combine your keywords, exclude specific search terms, and search exact phrases to find the most relevant sources.

There are many types of sources commonly used in research. These include:

You’ll likely use a variety of these sources throughout the research process , and the kinds of sources you use will depend on your research topic and goals.

Scholarly sources are written by experts in their field and are typically subjected to peer review . They are intended for a scholarly audience, include a full bibliography, and use scholarly or technical language. For these reasons, they are typically considered credible sources .

Popular sources like magazines and news articles are typically written by journalists. These types of sources usually don’t include a bibliography and are written for a popular, rather than academic, audience. They are not always reliable and may be written from a biased or uninformed perspective, but they can still be cited in some contexts.

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If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Ryan, E. (2023, May 31). How to Find Sources | Scholarly Articles, Books, Etc.. Scribbr. Retrieved February 19, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/working-with-sources/finding-sources/

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Types of Sources and Where to Find Them: Secondary Sources

This is the second video in a two-part tutorial on primary and secondary sources. Historians and other scholars classify sources as primary or secondary. Whereas primary sources are considered the raw material of the historical record, and are usually created around the same time as the events they purport to document, secondary sources are further removed from these historical events or circumstances. Typically, secondary sources offer an interpretation of the past based on analysis and synthesis of primary sources.

Examples of secondary sources include:

  • surveys of broad historical periods,
  • works that focus on specific events or topics,
  • literary and cultural criticism,
  • and works on theory and methodology.

Secondary sources can be found in books, journals, or Internet resources.

When we talk about secondary sources, most of the time we are referring to the published scholarship on a subject, rather than supplementary material like bibliographies, encyclopedias, handbooks, and so forth. These supplementary materials are sometimes referred to as tertiary sources.

A secondary source is analytical and interpretive. It may offer a new reading of historical events and primary sources that have been analyzed before, or present an analysis of events and sources that were previously unknown or not written about. A secondary source might also synthesize the work of other historians in order to formulate a totally new interpretation. You will use secondary sources to identify the main currents of thought on your topic, and to answer questions, like:

  • Which historians have taken up this topic?
  • What were their main arguments?
  • How have historians’ understanding of the topic changed over time?

To identify secondary literature, you can do subject searches in the library catalog to find books, or subject searches in article databases to find articles. The most important databases for finding peer-reviewed articles by historians are: America: History and Life, which covers the history of North America and Historical Abstracts, which covers the rest of the world since 1450. You can also consult standard published bibliographies, like the American Historical Association’s Guide to Historical Literature, or specialized bibliographies, like this bibliography of medieval warfare. You may find more lengthy treatments of the topic published as book chapters, journal articles, or even as individual monographs. You can read about the topic in a subject encyclopedia and look at the bibliography at the end of the entry. You can find a major work of scholarship on the topic, and follow up on the sources used by the author.

Most of the time you will find the secondary literature you need by using

  • the library catalog,
  • the appropriate article databases,
  • subject encyclopedias,
  • bibliographies,
  • and by consulting with your instructor.

Remember to keep track of all the sources you’ve used. At some point, you’ll want to list them in a bibliography of your own.

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Primary and Secondary Sources

  • Finding Primary Sources

How do I know if my article is a secondary source?

Secondary sources in the sciences, finding databases.

  • Examples from Arts & Humanities
  • Examples from Business
  • Examples from Education
  • Examples from Health & Human Services
  • Examples from the Sciences
  • Examples from the Social Sciences

It can be harder to determine if an information source is a secondary article. It is important to remember that secondary sources provide background information and discussion on your topic. They give you a broader perspective and analyze the event/topic/work/person you are researching. For humanities topics, such as history, secondary sources will be written after an event occurs .

To determine if your information source is a valid secondary source, try asking yourself the following questions:

  • How does the author know about the subject? Is it from personal experience or first-hand knowledge or is the information based on what others have written?
  • Was the author present at the scene when the event took place? Does the author know the person or subject he or she is writing about?
  • Is the author interpreting or analyzing or discussing an event that happened?
  • Does the author cite other works written about the topic?
  • What is the publication date? Is it around the time the event occurred or was it written much later?
  • If it is an experiment that is being discussed, was the experiment conducted by the author or is the author discussing someone else's experiment?

Check your articles carefully! Literature review articles are secondary sources. However, article called systematic reviews, or Meta-analysis can be either primary or secondary. If you working on an assignment and need primary and/or secondary articles, please consult your professor to determine the type of source. 

You will find some secondary source materials in many of our databases. Use the link below to see a list of all of our databases. Use the dropdown labeled "All Subjects" to sort by a specific subject. 

  • Full Database List
  • << Previous: Finding Primary Sources
  • Next: Examples from Arts & Humanities >>
  • Last Updated: Mar 8, 2022 11:25 AM
  • URL: https://libguides.southernct.edu/primaryandsecondarysources

Writing Center Home Page

OASIS: Writing Center

Citations: secondary sources, nontraditional sources: secondary sources video.

  • Nontraditional Sources: Secondary Sources (video transcript)

Basics of Secondary Sources

Secondary sources often are defined in contrast to primary sources. In a primary source, an author shares his or her original research—whether it be case study findings, experiment results, interview materials, or clinical observations. However, in a secondary source, an author focuses on presenting other scholars’ research, such as in a literature review.

When trying to distinguish between a primary and secondary source, it is important to ask yourself:

  • Who originally made the discoveries or brought the conclusions in this document to light?
  • Did the author conduct the study his or herself?
  • Or is the author recounting the work of other authors? 

For further guidance on determining the difference between primary and secondary sources, see Walden Library’s “Evaluating Resources: Primary & Secondary Sources” page .

Citing a Source Within a Source

Secondary sources refer to sources that report on the content of other published sources.

Citing a source within a source (citing a secondary source) is generally acceptable within academic writing as long as these citations are kept to a minimum. You should use a secondary source only if you are unable to find or retrieve the original source of information. However, if you need to cite a source within a source, follow the guidelines from APA 7, Section 8.6.

For example, imagine that you found a quotation from Culver that you wish to use in your text; however, you found this information in Jones and were unable to locate Culver’s original source. For this reference, Culver would be the primary source, and Jones would be the secondary source. You will name the primary source in your text, but the reference and citations will credit the secondary source:

According to Culver (2006, as cited in Jones, 2009), learning APA "can be tough, but like any skill, it just takes practice" (p. 23). In addition, the mastery of APA increases an author's chance of scoring well on an assignment (Culver, 2006, as cited in Jones, 2009).

Corresponding Reference List Entry

Cite just the secondary source in your reference list.

Jones, J. (2009). Scholarly writing tips . Minneapolis, MN: Publishing House.

Secondary source citations are not just for direct quotations. For instance, when referencing Rogers's adult learning theory, if you did not find the information in Rogers, your citations for the material should be in secondary source format.

Note : When citing primary material, the original publication date is usually unneeded. Following the primary author's name with the year in parentheses, like Culver (2006), indicates that you are directly citing the original source. To avoid confusion, just include the year of the secondary source in your text, like Culver (as cited in Jones, 2009).

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Knowledge Check: Secondary Sources

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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Evaluating Sources: Where to Begin

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Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

It’s difficult to evaluate a source if you’re not sure where to begin. Before getting started, it’s important to establish what genre of research you need. Below is a breakdown of how sources are often separated. Once you recognize the differences in sources, it becomes easier to locate exactly what you need and evaluate whether the sources you find seem credible.

Scholarly vs. Popular Sources

Most sources fall into two categories: scholarly and popular. Scholarly sources are written by highly-qualified researchers and have a thorough publication process, which usually involves peer-reviewing and an extensive list of references at the end of the text. Scholarly sources often have a specific audience in mind, most likely other experts in the particular field of study. Examples of scholarly sources include books and academic journals written by scholars and experts.

Popular sources, on the other hand, are written by and intended for a general audience. Popular sources are not peer-reviewed, and they do not usually include a reference list. Examples of popular sources range from some books and magazines to websites and blogs.

If you’re unsure whether the source you’re reading is scholarly or popular, ask yourself these questions:

  • Who is the intended audience?
  • Does the author have credentials?
  • Is the text peer-reviewed?
  • Is there a reference list or Works Cited page?

If the source you’re examining fits the above criteria, it is most likely a scholarly source.

When searching for sources, different topics might require more scholarly sources or more popular sources. For example, if you were researching the effects of a certain treatment for cancer patients, you would most likely turn to scholarly sources written by experts. However, if you wanted to examine how different news outlets and social media sites portrayed a recent presidential debate, you would instead turn to popular sources.

Understanding the difference between a scholarly and popular source is a crucial step in evaluating credible sources.

Primary vs. Secondary Sources

Just as sources can be scholarly or popular, sources are also divided into primary and secondary.

A primary source is a firsthand or eyewitness account of information by an individual close to the topic. Examples of primary sources include autobiographies, personal correspondence (e.g., diary entries, letters), government documents, works of art and literature, statistics and data, and newspaper articles written by reporters close to the source. Today, even some social media posts are considered primary sources, because they are firsthand accounts of information.

A secondary source is a source that is more removed from an event, usually written after the event has happened. Examples of secondary sources include biographies, interpretation of statistics and data, and anything written after an historical event or analyzing something that already happened (e.g., examining a work of art from 100 years ago).

Depending on your research, you may need more primary or secondary sources. For example, if you wanted to trace the history of whale sightings off the coast of Alaska, you would probably need to find some historical documents that provide firsthand information on whale sightings from a few hundred years ago. However, if you wanted to look at how boating has changed whale migration patterns, you would probably rely on some secondary sources that interpret data and statistics.

When evaluating sources, being able to determine whether it’s primary or secondary is helpful as you continue in your research.

Secondary Sources: ALRs, Encyclopedias, Law Reviews, Restatements, & Treatises

Legal encyclopedias, law review articles, american law reports, restatement drafts, getting help, introduction.

Secondary sources are a great place to begin your research . Although the primary sources of law--case law, statutes, and regulations--establish the law on a given topic, it is often difficult to quickly locate answers in them. Secondary sources often explain legal principles more thoroughly than a single case or statute, so using them can help you save time . Secondary sources also help you avoid unnecessary research, since you're tapping into work that someone else has already done on an issue.

Secondary sources include:

  • Legal encyclopedias
  • American Law Reports (ALR)
  • Law review articles

Restatements

Secondary sources are particularly useful for:

  • Learning the basics of a particular area of law
  • Understanding key terms of art in an area
  • Identifying essential cases and statutes

This guide provides a basic overview of each source, including their strengths and why you might use them, as well as tips on finding, using, and citing them.

This guide is based on material written by Deanna Barmakian.

This guide is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 United States License .

You may reproduce any part of it for noncommercial purposes as long as credit is included and it is shared in the same manner. 

Intro to Legal Encyclopedias

Legal encyclopedias contain brief, broad summaries of legal topics, providing introductions to legal topics and explaining relevant terms of art.They also provide citations to relevant primary law and sometimes give citations to relevant major law review articles.

There are two main legal encyclopedias in the United States that are national in scope. They are useful, but not well-suited for jurisdiction specific research.

State legal encyclopedias provide background and explanations of state legal topics. Not every state has a legal encyclopedia. Depth of coverage and quality vary. State encyclopedia articles are updated irregularly.

Electronic versions of the encyclopedias are updated directly. If using a print encyclopedia, always remember to check the pocket parts for any updates.

National Legal Encyclopedias

  • American Jurisprudence 2d (AmJur) Reading Room KF 154.A42 Am Jur 2d articles summarize broad principles of U.S. law and provide citations to cases, statutes, rules, forms, and A.L.R. annotations. A six-volume general index is located at KF 154.A42. Topical indexes are located in the last volume of every topic.
  • American Jurisprudence Available on Lexis
  • American Jurisprudence on Westlaw
  • Corpus Juris Secundum (CJS) Reading Room KF 154.C56 This 152-volume set is arranged into approximately 400 topics. Articles within topics begin with a general rule of law and are followed by the exceptions and qualifications to that general rule. A four-volume general index is located at KF 154.C56. There are also individual indexes for each major topic.
  • Corpus Juris Secundum on Westlaw CJS is not available on Lexis.

State Legal Encyclopedias

Legal encyclopedias are listed alphabetically by state. Electronic versions are included only if they are comprehensive in scope.

For a few states, Westlaw offers a practice series that contains selective coverage of state law, usually covering a few major topics and information useful to litigators. To find them, browse the Westlaw directory by U.S. State Materials > Other U.S. States > State name >  Forms, Treatises, CLEs, and Other Practice Materials, then browse the page for "practice series."

  • California Jurisprudence 3d Reading Room KFC 80 .C29
  • Summary of California Law Reading Room KFC 80 .W5
  • California Jurisprudence 3d (Westlaw)
  • Summary of California Law (Lexis) Available on Lexis
  • Summary of California Law (Westlaw)
  • Colorado Law Annotated 2d Reading Room KFC 1880 .P76
  • Florida Jurisprudence 2d Reading Room KFF 80 .F56
  • Florida Jurisprudence 2d (Lexis) Available on Lexis
  • Florida Jurisprudence 2d (Westlaw)
  • Georgia Jurisprudence Reading Room KFG 80 .G45
  • Georgia Jurisprudence (Westlaw)
  • Illinois Law and Practice Reading Room KFI 1265 .I44x
  • Illinois Jurisprudence (Lexis) Available on Lexis
  • Illinois Law and Practice (Westlaw)
  • Indiana Law Encyclopedia Reading Room KFI 3065 .W44
  • Indiana Law Encyclopedia (Westlaw)
  • Louisiana Civil Law Treatise Reading Room, KFL 92 - 583 (call numbers vary)
  • Louisiana Civil Law Treatise (Westlaw)
  • Maryland Law Encylopedia Reading Room KFM 1265 .W4x
  • Maryland Law Encyclopedia (Westlaw)
  • Michigan Law and Practice Encyclopedia Reading Room KFM 4265 .M63x
  • Michigan Law and Practice (Lexis) Available on Lexis
  • Michigan Civil Jurisprudence (Westlaw)
  • Dunnell Minnesota Digest (Lexis) Available on Lexis
  • Encyclopedia of Mississippi Law Reading Room KFM 6665 .E53x
  • Summary of Mississippi Law Reading Room KRM 6665 .G7
  • New Hampshire Practice Reading Room KFN 1280 .N48
  • New Jersey Practice Reading Room KFN 1880 .N4
  • New Jersey Practice (Westlaw)
  • New York Jurisprudence 2d Reading Room KFN 5065 .N48
  • New York Jurisprudence 2d (Lexis) Available on Lexis
  • New York Jurisprudence 2d (Westlaw)
  • Strong's North Carolina Index Reading Room KFN 7445 .6 .S82
  • Strong's North Carolina Index (Westlaw)
  • Ohio Jurisprudence 3d Reading Room KFO 65 .O35
  • Ohio Jurisprudence 3d (Lexis) Available on Lexis
  • Ohio Jurisprudence 3d (Westlaw)
  • Pennsylvania Law Encyclopedia Reading Room KFP 65 .P46x
  • Pennsylvania Law Encyclopedia (Lexis) Available on Lexis
  • Summary of Pennsylvania Jurisprudence 2d (Westlaw)
  • South Carolina Jurisprudence Reading Room KFS 1865 .S68x
  • South Carolina Jurisprudence (Westlaw)
  • Tennessee Jurisprudence Reading Room KFT 65 .T46
  • Tennessee Jurisprudence (Lexis) Available on Lexis
  • Texas Jurisprudence 3d Reading Room KFT 1265 .T49
  • Texas Jurisprudence 3d (Lexis) Available on Lexis
  • Texas Jurisprudence 3d (Westlaw)
  • Michie's Jurisprudence of Virginia and West Virginia Reading Room KFV 2465 .M52
  • Michie's Jurisprudence of Virginia and West Virginia (Lexis) Available on Lexis

How to Cite Legal Encyclopedias

See Bluebook B8.15 and Rule 15.8.

Quick example:

17 AM. JUR. 2d Contracts § 74 (1964).

Intro to Treatises

Treatises , not to be confused with treaties , are book-length expositions on the law as it pertains to a particular subject. Treatises may be scholarly in nature, such as Blackstone’s Commentaries on the Law , or they may be geared toward a legal practitioner, such as a manual or handbook.

A legal treatise may be a short, single volume or a large, multivolume set. Many are available electronically as well as in print. Different kinds of treatises have different purposes:

Legal hornbooks are designed as teaching tools for law students. Hornbooks provide more detailed treatments of particular areas of law than an encyclopedia or ALR entry. They generally contain summaries of landmark cases and other useful details.

Nutshells provide an overview of a legal topic without the detailed analysis or extensive case referencing found in other treatises.

Some treatises are designed to serve as practitioners’ tools. These works tend to address realistic legal problems and often provide useful features for practicing lawyers, such as forms and tables.

Looseleaf services are an example of treatises designed to serve as tools for practitioners. Such works address realistic legal problems and often provide useful features for practicing lawyers, such as forms and tables. Looseleaf services are frequently supplemented treatises--hence the looseleaf binder format that enables single pages to be easily updated without republishing the entire volume--that often contain primary legal sources and finding aids in addition to secondary analytical material, making them an invaluable resource if one exists for your topic.

Still other treatises are designed to serve as self-help publications for the public, such as those published by Nolo Press .

Finding treatises

There are several ways to locate legal treatises:

  • Use the HLS Library Guide to Legal Treatises by Subject for librarian-recommended treatises in many areas of law
  • Do a keyword or subject search in Hollis , Hollis Classic , or another library catalog . Use the expanded search or facets to limit your search to the law school library.
  • Ask a research librarian to help you locate treatises on your topic
  • Consult reference sources that review treatises by subject such as:
The Legal Information Buyer's Guide and Reference Manual by Ken Svengalis Legal Information: How to Find It, How to Use It by Kent C. Olson (note: this guide does not include single volume works) Legal Looseleafs in Print by Arlene Eis

Using treatises

Using legal treatises is like using any non-law book with a few special advisories.

First, as with any book, use the table of contents and the index to quickly locate relevant sections .

Second, remember that for a publication to provide reliable coverage of contemporary issues, it must be updated regularly and accurately to reflect any changes in the law . Updating may happen through the addition of pocket parts (which are usually tucked in a pocket in the back cover of a volume), by updated pages in a looseleaf, or periodic republication or an entire volume. Researchers should always make sure they are working with the most current edition of the treatise and be sure to consult pocket parts.

Third, while many treatises are still only available in print, more treatises are becoming available online . For example, major treatises on insurance law are available in both Lexis and Westlaw. Electronic versions of treatises allow for full text searching, which can be valuable for research. For more focused search results, consider narrowing your search to relevant sections, if possible. In many cases, you can still access the tables of contents and indexes to help locate chapters or sections of interest.

Remember that you can (and should!) check to see how current the electronic text is by clicking the I link next to the title of the treatise to see how regularly it is updated and when the last update took place.

How to Cite Treatises

See Bluebook Rule 15.

RICHARD H. FALLON, JR. ET AL., HART AND WECHSLER'S THE FEDERAL COURTS AND THE FEDERAL SYSTEM 330 (5th ed. 2003).

Intro to Law Review Articles

Law review or journal articles are another great secondary source for legal research, valuable for the depth in which they analyze and critique legal topics, as well as their extensive references to other sources, including primary sources.

Law reviews are scholarly publications, usually edited by law students in conjunction with faculty members. They contain both lengthy articles and shorter essays by professors and lawyers, as well as comments, notes, or developments in the law written by students. Law review articles often focus on new or emerging areas of law and they can offer more critical commentary than a legal encyclopedia or ALR entry .

Some law reviews are dedicated to a particular topic, such as gender and the law or environmental law, and will include in their contents the proceedings of a wide range of panels and symposia on timely legal issues.

Sources of full text law review articles

These resources all provide comprehensive coverage of United States law reviews, and allow you to search the full text of the articles that they index.

  • Bloomberg Law Bloomberg Law is available to all HLS students, faculty, and staff. Register with your HLS email address. Law reviews are included in Bloomberg Law's selection of secondary sources.
  • HeinOnline Law Journal Library Database of full text, PDF law review articles; use advanced search to search by topic or search specific titles. HeinOnline is the most comprehensive law review articles database, as coverage begins with the first issue of each journal.
  • LexisNexis U.S. Law Reviews and Journals, Combined Combined full text database of United States Law Reviews and Bar Journals. Coverage begins in 1982; regular updates as received from publishers. Lexis also contains databases for Canadian law reviews articles and law review articles by jurisdiction and topic.
  • Westlaw Journals & Law Reviews Journals and Law Reviews contains full text documents from law reviews and CLE materials from U.S. and Canadian based publications. Coverage varies by publication with most going back to the 1980s or 1990s.

Indexes to law reviews and journals

These resources only index articles, usually by author, title, keywords, and subject; you will have to find the full text separately. However, they provide additional ways of searching, including taking advantage of subject indexing by expert librarians, and they enable finding material that may not be found in full text databases. In most cases, there will be a link to find the article you desire at Harvard. If we do not own the journal in question, you may request the article via interlibrary loan .

  • Current Index to Legal Periodicals A weekly publication by the University of Washington Library, CILP indexes the most recent law review and journal publications by subject as well as provides the tables of contents of the journals indexed. Also available on Westlaw and in print in the reference room at K 33 .C86.
  • Index to Foreign Legal Periodicals IFLP indexes legal literature worldwide, covering all forms of foreign law, including comparative law and legal systems, such as Islamic law; socialist law; public and private international law; and transnational commercial law. Although Anglo-American law is not covered, British and American publications concerning foreign law are included. IFLP includes journal articles, congress reports, essay collections, yearbooks and book reviews in all languages. Coverage begins in 1985.
  • Index to Legal Periodicals, Retrospective (1908 - 1981) This retrospective database indexes over 750 legal periodicals published in the United States, Canada, Great Britain, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand. Annual surveys of the laws of a jurisdiction, annual surveys of the federal courts, yearbooks, annual institutes, and annual reviews of the work in a given field or on a given topic will also be covered.
  • Index to Legal Periodicals and Books (1981 - ) ILP indexes articles in over 800 legal periodicals such as law reviews, bar association journals, yearbooks, institutes, and government publications from August 1981 to the present. In 1994, ILP began indexing legal books and now indexes approximately 2,000 per year. ILP can be searched simultaneously with ILP Retrospective (see next link) through the open database selection area link.

Restricted Access: HarvardKey or Harvard ID and PIN required

  • Index to Canadian Legal Literature (Westlaw) ICLL is a periodical index and bibliography of Canadian legal literature from 1985 to present. ICLL indexes monographs, essays, federal and provincial government publications, publications of law faculties and legal research institutes and associations, including theses, publications from the law societies and associations, legal education materials, and more. Also available in print in the reference room at KE 1 .I532 2001
  • Nineteenth Century Masterfile Jones & Chipman's Index to Legal Periodical Literature covers the content of about 235 British legal periodicals and 67 Law Report titles from 1786-1937. Jones & Chipman is available as part of 19th Century Masterfile, a collection of indexes covering 19th century periodicals and newspapers. Also available in print in the Library at Reference K 33 .I53. more... less... Help Searching
  • Legal Journals Index (Westlaw) Legal Journals Index provides citations to articles in over 450 legal journals published in the United Kingdom and other European countries from 1986 to the present. The index covers topics pertaining to the laws of the European Union and its member states. Citations include abstracts and links to the full-text of the article and referenced cases when available. Also available in print in the reference room at KD 59 .L44.

Working Paper Repositories

Working papers are an additional source of secondary analysis. They are frequently draft or pre-publication versions of law review articles, though you will also find published versions of articles in these databases. When citing or relying on a draft paper, be sure to carefully check its citations and request the author's permission before citing.

  • SSRN Legal Scholarship Network Contains both published and working papers by law faculty, as well as scholars working in the fields of accounting, economics, financial economics, and management. Search by author and by title and abstract keywords. Most papers are available for download in pdf format.
  • BePress Legal Repository Contains approximately 3000 articles and papers by law faculty.

How to Cite Law Review and Journal Articles

See Bluebook Rule 16.

Quick example: Paul Butler et. al., Race, Law and Justice: The Rehnquist Court and the American Dilemma, 45 Am. U. L. REV. 567, 569 (1996).

Intro to ALR

American Law Reports (frequently abbreviated and referred to as ALR) contains in-depth articles on narrow topics of the law. ALR articles, called annotations, provide background, analysis, and citations to relevant cases, statutes, law review articles, and other annotations .

ALR is published in series:

  • two series under its original title Lawyers Reports Annotated
  • eight ALR series, one through six
  • two federal series

ALR annotations are not jurisdiction specific. Each annotation contains a Table of Jurisdictions to help you find relevant cases within specific states. In the federal series, the Table of Jurisdictions directs you to cases by circuit.

All ALR series continue to be updated, though not on a regular schedule. When using the set in print, always check the pocket parts for updates. ALR is also available in both Lexis and Westlaw, and the electronic versions incorporate updates into the text. ALR annotations can also be completely superceded by more recent annotations. Electronic versions will provide referrals to the superceding annotations, but in print, you should check the History Table at the end of the ALR Index to verify that your annotation has not been superceded.

Find relevant annotations by using the print indices or searching the ALR databases in Lexis or Westlaw. When using ALR electronically, it is most efficient to look for your terms in the titles of the annotations, since their titles are specific, and reflect their contents.

Finding ALR in print and online

  • ALR on Westlaw Contains the full text of the annotations included in the First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, Federal, and Federal Second series of American Law Reports (ALR) and the Index to Annotations covering these series. Because West publishes ALR, this is the most comprehensive electronic version.

Lexis ID and password required

  • The ALR Index is located in the Reading Room at KF 132.2.I53. It covers annotations written since 1948.
  • The ALR Quick Index is located in the Reading Room at KF 132.6.A543. It covers major annotations from the ALR 3d series to the present.

How to Cite ALR Annotations

See Bluebook Rule 16.6.6

William B. Johnson, Annotation, Use of Plea Bargain or Grant of Immunity as Improper Vouching for Credibility of Witness in Federal Cases, 76 A.L.R. FED. 409 (1986).

Intro to Restatements

Restatements are highly regarded distillations of common law . They are prepared by the American Law Institute (ALI), a prestigious organization comprising judges, professors, and lawyers. The ALI's aim is to distill the "black letter law" from cases to indicate trends in common law, and occasionally to recommend what a rule of law should be. In essence, they restate existing common law into a series of principles or rules.

Restatements cover broad topics, such as Contracts or Property. They are organized into chapters, titles, and sections. Sections contain a concisely stated rule of law, comments to clarify the rule, hypothetical examples, explanation of purpose, as well as exceptions to the rule.

Restatements are not primary law. Due to the prestige of the ALI and its painstaking drafting process, however, they are considered persuasive authority by many courts. The most heavily cited Restatements are the Restatement of Torts and the Restatement of Contracts.

The ALI web site contains information regarding Restatement projects, ALI membership, history and institutional processes.

Finding Cases Discussing Restatements

Annotations of cases citing a Restatement section can be found in the Appendix volumes the Restatements in print. There may be one or many Appendix volumes. They are organized by Restatement series, (i.e. citations to the first Restatement, then second, etc.), then by section number. Appendices are not cumulative. The spines indicate sections and years covered. They are updated with pocket parts, cumulative annual supplements, and semiannual pamphlets called Interim Case Citations. The same case annotations are available when using the Restatements on LexisNexis or Westlaw.

You can Shepardize a Restatement section on LexisNexis using the following formats. Note that Bluebook citation format for Restatements, or permutations thereof, will not work.

  • torts second sec. 46
  • property second (donative transfers) sec 25.9
  • conflict of laws second sec. 6
  • contracts second sec. 35 cmt. d illus. 7

You can also KeyCite a Restatement section on Westlaw using the following formats. Note that KeyCite finds significantly more citing material than Shepard's for Restatements. (See the KeyCite Publications List for additional help with citation format.)

  • rest agen s 1
  • rest 2d contr s 3
  • rest 2d prop-lt s 1.1
  • rest 3d trusts-pir s 170

Current Restatements

Listed below are print editions of the Restatements and their locations in the library. Restatements are also available on both Lexis and Westlaw:

Restatements on LexisNexis Rules (along with comments, illustrations, and notes) are searchable in separate sources from case citations. This makes searching for relevant rules very efficient on LexisNexis. Case citations are linked from individual rules. Browse tables of contents or search by keyword. Restatement drafts are in separate sources from final versions of Restatements. The first series of Restatements is not available on LexisNexis.

Retreiving Restatement sections using Get a Document is not intuitive. Search for restatement in the Get a Document Citation Formats list to determine the proper format.

Restatements on Westlaw All series of Restatements are available on Westlaw. Browse tables of contents or search by keyword. Searching the Restatements on Westlaw can be problematic, because multiple series as well as selected drafts are combined into one database along with case citations to all of them, e.g. Torts first, second, and the topic-specialized Torts third series along with citations to all series are in one database. This can make keyword searching inefficient unless you use a fielded search or use the Table of Contents mode to search within a particular Restatement. Examine your search results carefully to ensure you are looking at the current version of a rule. If a rule has been superceded, there will be note above the rule text indicating this.

Retrieving Restatement sections using Find is somewhat intuitive. The format mimics the database ID. See the listed format for KeyCite below; they will also work for Find. For a complete list of Restatement retrieval formats, search the Find Publications List for restatement. 

  • Agency 2d Reading Room KF 1345 .A764
  • Agency 3d Reading Room KF 1345 .A764
  • Conflict of Laws 2d Reading Room KF 411 .A453
  • Contracts 2d Reading Room KF 801 .R47
  • Foreign Relations Law of the United States 3d Reading Room KF 4651 .A748x
  • Judgments 2d Reading Room KF 8990 .R48
  • Law Governing Lawyers 3d Reading Room KF 300 .R47
  • Property Reading Room KF 570 .A73
  • Property, Donative Transfers 2d Reading Room KF 613 .R47
  • Property, Landlord and Tenant 2d Reading Room KF 590 .A84
  • Property, Mortgages 3d Reading Room KF 695 .R49
  • Property, Servitudes 3d Reading Room KF 656 .R475x
  • Property, Wills and Other Donative Transfers 3rd Reading Room KF613 .R479x
  • Restitution: Quasi Contracts & Constructive Trusts Reading Room KF 1244 .R46x
  • Security Reading Room KF 1050 .A745
  • Suretyship and Guaranty 3d Reading Room KF 1045 .R463x
  • Torts 2d Reading Room KF 1249 .A4 R47
  • Torts, Apportionment of Liability 3d Reading Room KF 1249 .A4 R4774x
  • Torts, Liability for Physical and Emotional Harm 3d Reading Room KF1286 .R473x
  • Torts, Products Liability 3d Reading Room KF 1296 .R476x
  • Trusts 2d Reading Room KF 730 .A8
  • Trusts 3d Reading Room KF 730 .R4763x
  • Trusts, Prudent Investor Rule 3d Reading Room KF 730 .R4725
  • Unfair Competition 3d Reading Room KF 3195 .R475x

Restatements in Draft Status

For more information about the drafting process, see the Restatements Drafts sub-tab.

  • Employment Law 3d (discussion draft) Reading Room KF3319 .R473x
  • Restitution and Unjust Enrichment 3d (tentative draft) Reading Room KF 1244 .R463x
  • Torts, Economic Torts and Related Wrongs 3d This project began in 2010; there are no drafts yet.
  • U.S. Law of International Commercial Arbitration 3d

How to Cite Restatements

See Bluebook Rule 12.8.5

RESTATEMENT (THIRD) OF PROP.: DONATIVE  TRANSFERS § 2 (2000).

  • Liability for Economic Harm (tentative draft) (Torts 3d)

The Drafting Process

For a short overview of the drafting process for a Restatement, see How the ALI Works .

Parties Involved

  • ALI Officers: a group of approximately ten, including the Chair of the Council, President, Vice Presidents, Treasurer, Director, and Deputy Directors
  • ALI Council: an elected, standing group of approximately sixty judges, professors, and lawyers
  • Reporter: Head of the Restatement project appointed by the ALI Officers and Council, responsible for drafting the language of the Restatement
  • Advisers: Group of professors and lawyers (usually 12-30 for a Restatement) with subject expertise appointed to advise the Reporter
  • Members Consultative Group: Groups of ALI members (usually 50-75 for a Restatement) interested in the topic of a Restatement who wish to offer input
  • ALI Membership: a approximately 3000 ALI members who discuss and ocasionally vote on Restatement language at annual meetings; membership gives input only near the end stages of the drafting process

Drafting Process

The following process typically takes between 9 and 21 years:

  • A Reporter is appointed by the Council
  • The Reporter divides the project into parts that go through the following process separately:
  • The Reporter writes a preliminary draft
  • The Preliminary draft is sent to the Advisers and the Members Consultative Group
  • The Advisers and Members Consultative Group recommend revisions
  • The Reporter, at his/her discretion, makes the revisions
  • The draft goes back and forth between the Advisers and the Reporter and a series of revised preliminary drafts are made
  • The Reporter and Advisers send a council draft to the Council of the Institute
  • The Council suggests revisions
  • The Reporter is somewhat obliged to make the suggested revisions
  • The draft goes back and forth between the Advisors and the Council and a series of council drafts are made
  • The Council presents a tentative draft to the ALI membership
  • The draft goes back and forth between the Council and the Membership and a series of tentative drafts are made
  • Issues surrounding the draft settle and a proposed final draft is usually created
  • The proposed final draft (or last tentative draft) is submitted to the ALI Membership at the annual meeting
  • The Membership and the Council approve the proposed final draft
  • The Restatement is adopted and promulgated and the official text of the Restatement is published

Other ALI-authored works, such as Uniform Commercial Code articles, are created in a similar process. If you want assistance locating materials relating to non-Restatement ALI projects, please ask a research librarian .

TRACING THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF RESTATEMENT SECTIONS

Legal researchers sometimes need to trace the historical development of a Restatement section, the impetus for its inclusion, which section of a prior Restatement it derived from, or how it came to be worded a certain way.

For many sections, Reporter's notes explain the development of a section, often explaining earlier versions and citations to cases that were used as the basis for the rule. Reporters notes can be found in the Appendix volumes of individual Restatements.

To trace how the text changed during the drafting process, you can compare various drafts: the tentative drafts, council drafts, preliminary drafts and proposed final drafts. Each draft has its own record in the library catalog. Use the Title Keywords search in  Hollis Classic --for example, search  restatement torts --to locate them. Drafts are also available in the microform set Archive Publications described below.

Some Restatement volumes contain conversion tables. These tables indicate where sections of drafts or sections from earlier series were included in the final, adopted version of a Restatement.

Although some Restatements are designated 2d or 3d, there are not always antecedents. For instance, the Restatement of the Law Governing Lawyers is a Restatement of the Law Third, but there has never been a first or second Restatement of the Law Governing Lawyers.

  • The Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Law Institute Available online from 1997 Available on Westlaw from 2000 For additional and older material, see: Reading Room KF 294 .A5 A3 Microform Room Drawer 812 An excellent research tool for those tracing the development of a Restatement section. The ALI has published the Proceedings annually since 1923, except for 1945-1955. The Proceedings contain reports to ALI members, Reporter presentations, transcripts of discussions of drafts, the text of proposed amendments, and include an index of sections discussed. For the years 1945-1955, the Proceedings are only available in the Archive Publications set described below.
  • The ALI Reporter Available online from 1999 Reading Room KF 200 .A455 The ALI's quarterly newsletter contains the latest information about ALI projects, meetings, and members, including reports on actions taken on drafts and the full text of chapters approved for discussion at the annual meeting with revisions explained.
  • Archive Publications Microfilm Room KF 294.A5 A43, Drawers 963-965 A microfiche set containing the text of of Restatements, all drafts, and ALI Proceedings from annual meetings for the years that were not officially published, 1945-55. It also contains drafts of four Restatement projects that were terminated before completion. The set is arranged by Restatement, by section, and chronologically. Coverage starts with the founding of the ALI in 1923. All drafts produced for ALI projects are added to this set a few years after the project is completed or terminated. There is a print guide to this microfiche collection in the Microform Room at KF 294 .A5 A43.
  • American Law Institute Archives Finally, there is a well-indexed, comprehensive collection of the American Law Institute Archives at the Biddle Law Library of the University of Pennsylvania. The archive contains drafts, comments, and correspondence related to ALI projects.

Determining the Current Status of Restatement Drafts

The American Law Institute is continually working on Restatements and other projects. Researchers are often interested in determining whether a Restatement has become final, or what stage the drafting process has reached. The following tools can help answer those questions, as well as provide a history of the development of ALI projects.

  • ALI Catalog of Publications The catalog contains information about draft content and authorship. It mentions which portions of Restatements are superceded or in development.
  • Annual Report of the ALI Director The Annual Report summarizes work contemplated, underway, and completed during the year on various Restatements. Available online from 1999. Reports 1988-1998, are available in the Reading Room KF 294 .A5 A14 .
  • Proceedings of ALI Annual Meetings The Proceedings contain proposed amendments, an index of sections discussed, and records of discussions. Meetings take place in May and the Proceedings are usually available by March or April of the following year. Available online from 1997 Available on Westlaw from 2000 For additional and older material, see: Reading Room KF 294 .A5 A3 Microform Room Drawer 812

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In the social sciences, a secondary source is usually a scholar book, journal article, or digital or print document that was created by someone who did not directly experience or participate in the events or conditions under investigation. Secondary sources are not evidence per se, but rather, provide an interpretation, analysis, or commentary derived from the content of primary source materials and/or other secondary sources.

Value of Secondary Sources

To do research, you must cite research. Primary sources do not represent research per se, but only the artifacts from which most research is derived. Therefore, the majority of sources in a literature review are secondary sources that present research findings, analysis, and the evaluation of other researcher's works.

Reviewing secondary source material can be of valu e in improving your overall research paper because secondary sources facilitate the communication of what is known about a topic. This literature also helps you understand the level of uncertainty about what is currently known and what additional information is needed from further research. It is important to note, however, that secondary sources are not the subject of your analysis. Instead, they represent various opinions, interpretations, and arguments about the research problem you are investigating--opinions, interpretations, and arguments with which you may either agree or disagree with as part of your own analysis of the literature.

Examples of secondary sources you could review as part of your overall study include:     * Bibliographies [also considered tertiary]     * Biographical works     * Books, other than fiction and autobiography     * Commentaries, criticisms     * Dictionaries, Encyclopedias [also considered tertiary]     * Histories     * Journal articles [depending on the discipline, they can be primary]     * Magazine and newspaper articles [this distinction varies by discipline]     * Textbooks [also considered tertiary]     * Web site [also considered primary]

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Library Research for Undergraduate History Students: An Introduction

  • Starting Points

What are Secondary Sources?

How do i find secondary sources, sources from other subject areas.

  • Primary Sources
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Ask a Librarian

Secondary sources   are the published work of scholars specializing in the topic. Secondary sources include scholarly books, articles, and essays (both analyses by contemporary scholars as well as older analyses), surveys, criticism, comparative studies, reference sources, and works on theory and methodology; this is also termed the secondary literature . Eventually you will need to decide which interpretation makes the most sense to you and seems consistent with your primary sources, or if you wish to offer a new interpretation. 

When we talk about secondary sources, most of the time we are referring to published scholarship on a subject, rather than supplemental material (bibliographies, encyclopedias, handbooks, etc.). Secondary literature is published in both book form and as articles in periodicals, either in print or digital format. (Digital format includes both reproduction of print material online and original e-text.) This scholarship is analytical and interpretive. It may synthesize the work of other historians to present a totally new interpretation. More likely, it offers a new reading of previously analyzed sources or presents an analysis of previously unknown sources.

Hence, you use secondary sources to identify the main currents of thought on your topic . Which historians have taken up this topic and what were their main arguments? How has our understanding of the subject changed with shifts in the predominant methodologies and theoretical perspectives in the historical profession?

To identify secondary literature, you can search the  online library catalog  to find books or search  article databases and online bibliographies  to find journal articles, book chapters, dissertations and more. Some useful article databases for history are:

Help & Support Information

  • L'Année philologique This link opens in a new window Online searchable database comprised of the print index begun in 1928 by Jules Marouzeau. Vols. 20- of the original print index are currently, with earler vols. to be digitized in the future. Indexes periodical articles as well as articles in collections and conference papers in classics and classical studies. Covers Greek and Latin linguistics and literature and Greek and Roman archaeology, history, mythology, religion, epigraphy, numismatics and palaeography: all aspects of the ancient Mediterranean world.
  • Brepolis Medieval and Early Modern Bibliographies This link opens in a new window The Brepolis Medieval and Early Modern Bibliographies are multidisciplinary bibliographies of Europe, North Africa and the Near East (300-1500), founded in 1967 with the aim of providing a comprehensive, current bibliography of articles in journals and miscellany volumes (conference proceedings, essay collections or Festschriften) worldwide. The bibliographies comprise 365,000 articles, all of which are fully classified by date, subject and location, and provide full bibliographical records.
  • Historical Abstracts with Full Text This link opens in a new window Covers the history of the world (excluding the United States and Canada) from 1450 to the present, including world history, military history, women's history, history of education, and more. Provides indexing of more than 1,700 academic historical journals in over 40 languages back to 1955. more... less... Alternate Access Link
  • America: History & Life with Full Text This link opens in a new window Index of literature covering the history and culture of the United States and Canada, from prehistory to the present. The database indexes journals from 1964 to present and includes citations and links to book and media reviews. more... less... Alternate Access Link
  • Hispanic American Periodicals Index (HAPI) This link opens in a new window Contains citations to articles in more than 400 scholarly journals published in Latin America or treating Latin American and U.S. Hispanic topics.
  • Bibliography of Asian Studies This link opens in a new window This on-line version of the Bibliography of Asian Studies (BAS) contains 787,165 records on all subjects (especially in the humanities and the social sciences) pertaining to East, Southeast, and South Asia published worldwide from 1971 to the present... In addition to entries compiled since 1997, the online BAS includes the full data of all of the printed volumes of the BAS issued from the 1971 up to the 1991 volumes (published in 1997)... Through the 1991 printed volume, the BAS included citations to Western-language periodical articles, monographs, chapters in edited volumes, conference proceedings, anthologies, and Festschriften, etc. Monographs published since 1992, however, have not been added to the database, and users seeking such monographs are urged to consult other general resources and databases such as WorldCat.. more... less... Alternate Access Link
  • American Bibliography of Slavic and East European Studies This link opens in a new window Covers North American scholarship on East-Central Europe, Russia, and the former Soviet Union. Contains bibliographic records for journal articles, books and book chapters, book reviews, dissertations, online resources, and selected government publications. more... less... Alternate Access Link

Additional suggestions can be found in the research guides created for history classes and special topics .

You can also consult book-length bibliographies , either general overviews such as the American Historical Association Guide to Historical Literature, or specialized bibliographies such as  The Harvard Guide to African-American History .

You can use the article databases listed above to look for review essays (also called review articles ) in which a historian who specializes in the subject analyzes recent scholarship; you may find helpful overviews that appear as chapters in collections, journal articles, or even monographs by using the keyword historiography or historiographic ; you can read about the topic in a subject encyclopedia and look at the bibliography at the end of the entry; and you can find a major work of scholarship on the topic and follow up on the sources used by the author ( footnote tracking ).

Most of the time you will find the secondary literature you need by using the online catalog, the appropriate article databases, subject encyclopedias or bibliographies, and by consulting your instructor.

Most academic research today is at least somewhat interdisciplinary . For historians, theories and methods are sometimes borrowed from other disciplines such as philosophy, literary criticism, and anthropology.

Furthermore, the publications compiled in the service of other disciplines very often serve as valuable source material for historians .

Check these links for helpful introductions to research resources for related disciplines:

African American Research Center

Online Resources for Religious Studies

Philosophy Library Resource Guide

Social Sciences, Health, and Education Library (SSHEL) :

  • American Indian Studies
  • Anthropology
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Literatures and Languages Library (includes Classics Collection)

Map Library

Music and Performing Arts Library

Ricker Architecture and Art Library

Funk (ACES) Library

  • Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences (ACES)
  • City Planning and Landscape Architecture
  • Prairie Research Institute
  • Agricultural Communications Documentation Center
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Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary Sources

  • Source Types
  • Primary Sources
  • Secondary Sources
  • Tertiary Sources
  • Examples by Discipline

What are secondary sources?

Secondary sources depend upon primary sources. Secondary sources describe, discuss, interpret, comment upon, analyze, evaluate, summarize, and process primary sources. The important thing to keep in mind when trying to decide if a source is primary or secondary is whether or not the author did the thing they are reporting on. If they did, it is a primary source; if they did not, it is a secondary source.

What is the role of secondary sources in research?

Secondary sources represent the scholarly conversation that has taken place, or is currently taking place, on a given topic. Thus, it is imperative that researchers acquire a comprehensive knowledge of the secondary literature on their topic to be able to then engage with it and offer their own perspective through their writing. Scholars show their deep knowledge of their topic by demonstrating in their writing their awareness of secondary literature. Research that does not include substantial references to both primary and secondary sources is not likely to be authoritative or reliable. For that reason, looking at the listed references in a piece of research can help you determine its value.

What are some examples of secondary sources?

Like primary sources, secondary sources can be lots of different kinds of resources depending on discipline and application. Secondary sources can be:

  • Journal articles
  • Monographs (books written on a single subject)
  • Newspaper or magazine articles
  • Book or movie reviews 

In the sciences, secondary sources tend to be things like literature reviews (synthesized descriptions of previous scholarship on a topic), systematic reviews (overviews of primary sources on a topic), or meta analyses (studies in which conclusions are drawn from consideration of systematic reviews).

In the humanities, secondary sources tend to be journal articles that discuss or evaluate someone else's research, monographs, or reviews. 

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how to find secondary sources for a research paper

Understanding Scientific Literature

Primary sources, secondary sources, tertiary sources.

  • Identifying a Research Article
  • Scholarly vs. Popular Literature

What are primary sources?

In the sciences primary sources are original research or data. Primary sources can include any of the following publications 

  • Journal Articles -- Journal articles can be primary sources if they contain original research, but keep in mind that not all journal articles are primary sources.
  • Reports -- Reports are publications on research that are published independently of a journal. They are often published by governments or companies.
  • Theses and Dissertations -- Theses and Dissertations are the original research of an academic working on a degree. 
  • Conference Proceedings -- Conference Proceedings are a collection of papers that have been presented at a conference. 
  • Published Data -- Data can be considered a primary source, as it is the product of original research.

Why use primary sources?

  Primary sources are a researchers firsthand account of their research. They provide an in depth view into how the research was conducted, and may contain supplemental materials like questionnaires used. A summary of a study or experiment in a book or review paper may not discuss all the findings, and you can gain more insight into a particular topic or issue by looking at the primary sources. 

How to find primary sources:

Resources for finding primary sources include: 

  • Databases and Indexes -- The exact database or index you choose to search will depend on the discipline you are searching in. 
  • Review Papers -- Review papers are often synthesized from other researchers to give an in-depth understanding of the current state of knowledge on a topic. If you have found a review paper when you are looking for a research paper don't fear! If the review paper is on the write topic it will cite plenty of research papers on your topic of interest. 

What are secondary sources?

In the sciences secondary sources analyze, interpret, summarize, or evaluate the findings of primary sources. Secondary sources can include any of the following publications: 

  • Journal review articles -- A review article summarizes past research on a given topic. Review articles can range from highly intensive systematic or integrative reviews or less rigorous literature reviews.
  • Textbooks -- The information in textbooks in the sciences is the product of past research.  
  • Monographs -- A monograph is a book-length scholarly publication dedicated to a single topic. 

Secondary sources can save you time by providing information on the current state of knowledge on a given topic, and also as a way to find primary resources. If you are interested to know what are important, seminal papers in on a topic look at what papers are cited in a textbook on that topic. Review papers can give you in-depth information on a particular research area. Secondary resources are also often less technical than primary resources. 

How to find secondary sources:

Resources for finding secondary sources 

  • Databases and Indexes -- Databases and indexes are particularly useful for finding review articles.  
  • The Library Catalog or Ram Search -- The library catalog or Ram Search will help you locate books on the topic you are interested in. 

What are tertiary sources?

In the sciences tertiary resources are synthesized from primary and secondary resources. They usually provide summaries on the current state of knowledge. Tertiary sources can include the following publications: 

  • Encyclopedias
  • Dictionaries 
  • Factbooks 
  • Almanacs 

Why use tertiary sources?

Tertiary sources can be viewed as a jumping off point for your own research. They provide succinct  summaries on topics, and can be a good way to familiarize yourself with the terminology on a topic before you begin searching the databases.

How to find tertiary sources:

Resources for finding tertiary sources include: 

  • The Library Catalog or Ram Search -- Keep in mind a majority of our encyclopedias are in the reference room. 
  • LibGuides and the Library Website -- We have a number of digital encyclopedias. Check the LibGuide for your field to see what digital encyclopedias we might offer!
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Academic Writing

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  • Thesis Statements
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Using Secondary Sources

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  • What are Primary and Secondary Sources?
  • Using Summary
  • Make Your Sources Speak

What Are Primary and Secondary Sources?

A primary source is a source that you are analyzing as the writer. In other words, there is no mediary between you and the text; you are the one doing the analysis.

Some examples of primary sources:

A secondary source , then, is a source that has also done analysis of the same (or a similar) topic. You will then use this source to discuss how it relates to your argument about the primary source. A secondary source is a mediary between you and the primary source. Secondary sources can also help your credibility as a writer; when you use them in your writing, it shows that you have done research on the topic, and can enter into the conversation on the topic with other writers.

Some examples of secondary sources:

Summary: When and How Do I Use It?

  One of the important distinctions to make when coming to terms with a text is knowing when to summarize it, when to paraphrase it, and when to quote it. Here’s what Joseph Harris, author of the textbook Rewriting: How to Do Things with Texts ,  has to say:

  “Summarize when what you have to say about a text is routine and quote when it is more contentious” (21).

In other words, quote when you need to rely on the voice of the writer, when you need the language of the text to help you make a point. Otherwise, try to use paraphrase or summary, so that your ideas are still the main focus.

 Summarizing a text can distract your reader from your argument, especially if you rely on lengthy summaries to capture a source in a nutshell. However, it can also prove an effective rhetorical tool: you just need to know when to use it.

You can use summary in the following ways:  

         - When the source offers important background about your ideas

       - When you need to provide your readers with an overview of a source’s entire argument before analyzing certain ideas from it

       - When the source either supports your thesis, or when it offers a position you want to argue against or analyze more in-depth

Here is a sample summary. What do you notice about it?

Ryuko Kubota argues in “Ideologies of English in Japan” that the debate over English’s place in the Japanese language disappeared with the militaristic rule of the 1930s and 1940s, when Japan rejected and/or suppressed the learning of English and other languages in favor of heavy nationalism. However, he adds that the debate returned during America’s occupation of Japan and has periodically been a topic for debate since.  Japanese politicians have always seen English as an important tool for Japan’s success as an industrial nation on a global scale. However, instead of molding itself to the English of the Western world, Japan has integrated English to fit its ideologies, to serve its own needs; indeed, to become part of the Japanese language.

1. This is a succinct summary; the entire summary is only three sentences.

2. The final sentence of the paragraph is the writer's attempt to make a connection between the article and her own ideas for her paper. This is an important step in using summary; it's important to always show the reader how/why the summary is important/relevant.

Paraphrasing: When/How/Why Should I Do It?

Paraphrasing gives you the room to condense a text’s ideas into your own words.  You can use this, for example, to rewrite a definition, to emphasize important points, or to clarify ideas that might be hard for the reader to understand if you quote the original text.

When you paraphrase, remember that you still need to cite the source in-text!

Depending on your field and the style guide your field follows, you may be required to paraphrase more than quote or summarize. Make sure you are familiar with the writing conventions for your field. APA, for example, draws much more on paraphrase than MLA.

Example of a Paraphrase

Let’s look at an example of a paraphrase.  Note that here the author of this paraphrase has used the author’s name first as an attributive tag – she is letting the reader know who wrote this.  She then goes on to put the writer’s ideas into her own words, but acknowledges directly where the ideas came from by using the in-text citation at the end of the second sentence.

    - This is a paraphrase for MLA; in APA, the year would come after Honna's name in parentheses.

In source-based or synthesis writing, we try to not only express our ideas using our own voice, but to also express our ideas through the voices of those we are citing. In their book Wriiting Analytically , Rosenwasser and Stephen offer six strategies to use in researched writing to make our sources speak, to make them come alive.

Here are some typical problems we encounter when using primary and secondary sources:

     - Leaving quotations and paraphrases to speak for themselves

     - Not differentiating your own voice from the voices of your sources (ventriloquizing)

     - Resorting to overly agreeing and disagreeing as your only means of responding to a source (other than summary)

Primary and secondary sources are nothing to fear. Many times we either leave sources to speak for themselves or ignore them altogether because we are afraid of losing our own voices. These strategies, listed below, are designed to help us know when and how to use quotes, and how not to become lost in the process.

Strategy 1: Make Your Sources Speak

v Quote, paraphrase, or summarize in order to analyze , as opposed to in place of analyzing.  Don’t assume that the meaning of your source material is self-evident.  Instead, explain to your readers what the quote, paraphrase, or summary means.  For example, what aspects do you find interesting or strange?  And relate these aspects to your overall thesis.   Your focus here in analysis should be on how the source leads you to your conclusion – beware of generalizing or putting two quotes next to each other without explaining the connection.

Using Strategy #1 : How are you using your sources?  Are you taking the time to develop points from your sources, or are you just using evidence – and is it clear why you are using it?  Highlight/bracket analysis, mark in a different color where analysis is not present immediately following source.  

Strategy 2: Use Your Sources to Ask Questions, Not Just to Provide Answers

v Use your selections from your sources as a means to raise issues and questions; avoid the temptation to use selections that provide answers without any commentary or further elaboration.  If you feel stuck with this, consider the source alongside other contexts (other sources, for example) and compare and contrast them to see if there are aspects of your topic that your source does not adequately address.

Using Strategy #2: Again, ask: how are you using your sources as question generators?  What how/why questions do your sources generate?  Look over the evidence you’ve used, and jot down the how/why questions you think your evidence creates.  Next, go through your paper.  Do you see yourself addressing these questions?  Mark your analysis appropriately so you can see how you’re addressing these questions (or not).  

Strategy 3: Put Your Sources in Conversation with One Another

v This is an extension of strategy 2.  Rather than limiting yourself to the only conversationalist with each source, aim for conversation among them.  Although it is not wrong to agree or disagree with your sources, it is wrong to see these as your only possible moves.  You should also understand that although it is sometimes useful and perhaps even necessary to agree or disagree, these judgments should 1) always be qualified and 2) occur only in certain contexts .  Instead of looking just at how you agree or disagree, try to imagine what these critics might say to one another.  Looking at sources in this way may prove useful as you explore your topics further in depth.

Using Strategy #3:

    This is a way for your sources to address one another directly, while also giving you more room to expand on your ideas through a slightly different form of analysis.  For example: what might the person you interviewed think about the secondary sources you found?  Would they agree with the claims you see your sources making, or would they disagree?  Why – what about their interview suggests this?  Make a list of possible dialogues your sources could have with one another.  

Strategy 4: Find Your Own Role in the Conversation

v Even though it’s important to not be the only person in the essay agreeing and disagreeing with the texts, it is important that you establish what you think and feel about each source.  After all, something compelled you to choose it, right?  In general, you have two options when you are in agreement with a source.  You can apply it in another context to qualify or expand its implications, or you can seek out other perspectives in order to break the hold it has on you.  In the first option, to do this, instead of focusing on the most important point, choose a lesser yet equally interesting point and work on developing that idea to see if it holds relevance to your topic.  The second option can also hold new perspectives if you allow yourself to be open to the possibilities of other perspectives that may or may not agree with your original source.

Using Strategy #4: While it’s important that you create a distinct voice for all the different kinds of sources you’ve used (interview, fieldwork, scholarly journals/books, etc.), it’s perhaps even more important that you have a clear role in this conversation that is your research essay.  Look over your paper: is it clear what you think?  Is it clear what is your voice, and what are the ideas/opinions of your sources? (Hint: your voice should still be clear in the midst of your sources, if you are taking the time to analyze them and develop your analysis as fully as possible.)  Highlight places where you voice – what you think – is clear.  Highlight in a different color places where your voice is unclear, or needs to be expressed more fully.

Strategy 5: Supply Ongoing Analysis of Sources (Don’t Wait Until the End)

v Instead of summarizing everything first and then leaving your analysis until the end, analyze as you quote or paraphrase a source .  This will help yield good conversation, by integrating your analysis of your sources into your presentation of them.

Using Strateg y #5:

Are your sources presented throughout the paper with careful analysis attending to each one?  Or are you presenting all your sources first, and analyzing them later?  Look through your paper, and mark places where you see yourself not analyzing your sources as you go.  Also: are there places where you see too much analysis, and not enough evidence?  Be sure to mark those places as well.  

Strategy 6: Attend Carefully to the Language of Your Sources by Quoting or Paraphrasing Them

v Rather than generalizing broadly about the ideas in your sources, you should spell out what you think is significant about their key words.  Quote sources if the actual language they use is important to your point; this practice will help you to present the view of your source fairly and accurately.  Your analysis will also benefit from the way the source represents its position (which may or may not be your position) with carefully chosen words and phrases.  Take advantage of this, and use the exact language to discuss the relevance (or not) of the quote to the issue you’re using it for.

Using Strategy #6: When paraphrasing or quoting a source, it’s important that you use the language of the source to help explain it – it keeps the reader in the moment with you, and helps him/her understand the key terms of that source – why you chose, why these words are so important, etc.  Look over your evidence, both quoted and paraphrased: are you using the language of the quote to help explain it?  Or is your analysis removed from the “moment of the source” (i.e. the language which the source uses to illustrate its point)?  Mark places where you think it’s important to use the language of the source to help analyze and develop the evidence more completely.  

  • Strategies for Using Quotes
  • Floating Quotations
  • How to Integrate Quotations

Attributed Quotations

Integrated Quotations

Strategies for Using Quotations In-Text

Acknowledge sources in your text, not just in citations:  

      “According to Lewis” or “Whitney argues.”

Use a set-up phrase, and splice the most important part of quotations in with your own words:

     According to Paul McCartney, “All you need is love.”

  Or phrase it with a set-up:

     Patrick Henry’s famous phrase is one of the first American schoolchildren memorize:

     “Give me liberty, or give me death.”

Anytime you use a quote, cite your source after the quotation:  

     Maxine Greene might attribute this resistance to “vaguely perceived expectations; they

     allow themselves to be programmed by organizations and official schedules or forms” (43).

Use ellipses to shorten quotations:

      “The album ‘OK Computer’ …pictured the onslaught of the information age and a young

        person’s panicky embrace of it” (Ross 85) .

Use square brackets to alter or add information within a quotation:  

      Popular music has always “[challenged] the mores of the older generation,” according to

      Nick Hornby.

Acc ording to Janet Gardner in her book Writing About Literature , there are three ways that we tend to use quotes:

Gardner advocates that we stay away from “floating quotations,” use at least an “attributed quotation,” and use “integrated quotations” as much as possible.

You will recognize a floating quotation when it looks as though the writer has simply lifted the passage from the original text, put quotations around it, and (maybe) identified the source.

Doing this can create confusion for the reader, who is left to guess the context and the reason for the quote.

This type of quoting reads awkward and choppy because there is no transition between your words and the language of the text you are quoting.

Example of a Floating Quotation; text taken from All She was Worth , by Miyuki Miyabe    

  Both Honma and Kyoko were rejected and looked down upon by Jun and Chizuko’s family when entering into marriage with their respective partners. “About her cousin – Jun’s father – and his family: what snobs they were, with fixed ideas on education and jobs” ( Miyabe 17).This passage shows that Honma and Kyoko were both being judged by their future in-laws by superficial stipulations.

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First, click on links labeled [PDF] or [HTML] to the right of the search result's title. Also, check out the "All versions" link at the bottom of the search result.

Second, if you're affiliated with a university, using a computer on campus will often let you access your library's online subscriptions. Look for links labeled with your library's name to the right of the search result's title. Also, see if there's a link to the full text on the publisher's page with the abstract.

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Technically, your web browser remembers your settings in a "cookie" on your computer's disk, and sends this cookie to our website along with every search. Check that your browser isn't configured to discard our cookies. Also, check if disabling various proxies or overly helpful privacy settings does the trick. Either way, your settings are stored on your computer, not on our servers, so a long hard look at your browser's preferences or internet options should help cure the machine's forgetfulness.

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Research Basics

  • What Is Research?
  • Types of Research
  • Secondary Research | Literature Review
  • Developing Your Topic
  • Primary vs. Secondary Sources
  • Evaluating Sources
  • Responsible Conduct of Research
  • Additional Help

What Is a Primary or Secondary Source?

At its simplest, a primary source is an account of something that happened by the people who were there, such as participants or witnesses. A secondary source is an account of something that happened by people who were NOT there, often framed as a review, summary, or analysis. Technically, a secondary source is a review or analysis of primary sources—there’s also what’s called a tertiary source, that analyzes secondary sources, and so on.

What Does That Mean to Me As a Student or Researcher at Illinois Tech?

The most common type of primary source used at Illinois Tech is the research paper written by the researcher(s) who actually carried out the work. These papers are typically published as articles in peer-reviewed journals but could also be in the form of a thesis or dissertation, research report, case study, clinical trial, etc. In addition to written reports, various ancillary materials can be primary sources. These include data, surveys, questionnaires, interviews, computer code, images, and other supporting materials that were generated or collected as part of the work.

Secondary sources may be published in peer-reviewed journals as well but most often occur in popular media, like websites, blogs, newspapers, etc. Secondary sources in peer-reviewed journals are easy to identify because they use the word “review” in the title or abstract and don’t present any new research. Also considered as secondary sources are any ancillary materials that were re-used or repurposed from other research.

Interestingly, primary source research papers almost always include a review of prior research as part of the introduction or as a “literature review” section. The primary source material only includes those parts that talk about the new research: the methodology, results, discussion of results, conclusions, or other similar sections.

Why Is It Important to Use Primary Sources?

Simply put, people make mistakes. There’s an old party game called Telephone where a phrase is whispered from one person to the next around the room and at the end of the game, everybody is amused at how the phrase or its meaning has changed. Using secondary, tertiary, or other sources is like playing Telephone with your research. Reviews and other secondary accounts are summaries, so even at their best they omit parts of the original research and lack the detail and nuance of the original paper. At worst, a review author could entirely misunderstand or misrepresent the original research.

Does That Mean I Should Only Use Primary Sources?

No, not at all. For older, well-established research that’s had ample time to be reviewed and consolidated into the general knowledge of the field, there’s no need to go back to primary source material unless you’re challenging the conventional interpretation.

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  • Last Updated: Dec 21, 2023 3:49 PM
  • URL: https://guides.library.iit.edu/research_basics

Research Paper Guide

How To Find Sources For A Research Paper

Nova A.

Finding Sources For a Research Paper: A Complete Guide

14 min read

Published on: Jan 16, 2024

Last updated on: Jan 18, 2024

how to find sources for a research paper

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Research paper writing can be tough and overwhelming. It's not just about your ideas but also about finding the right information. With so much stuff online, it's easy to feel lost and not know which sources are trustworthy.

Many researchers face the challenge of figuring out what's good and what's not when it comes to finding sources for their papers.

Don't worry! 

In this blog, we’ll show you simple and effective ways to find good sources for your research paper. You'll learn where to look and how to tell if a source is worth using. 

By the end, you'll be able to gather great information for your research paper and make it stronger and more convincing.

Let’s get started!

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Different Types of Sources

When you start a research paper , it's important to know the different kinds of sources. These sources give your paper a strong base. Each one brings different viewpoints and info, making your paper better and more trustworthy. 

Here are the main types of sources:

Primary Sources

Primary sources are firsthand accounts or original materials that provide direct evidence of an event, subject, or phenomenon. This includes:

  • Historical Documents
  • Original Research Studies.

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources analyze, interpret, or comment on primary sources. These are works that are one step removed from the original event or information. This includes

  • review articles
  • Documentaries

Tertiary Sources

Tertiary sources are like the summary of the summary. They compile and summarize information from primary and secondary sources. These sources include:

  • Encyclopedias
  • Dictionaries
  • Directories

How to Find Sources for a Research Paper?

When tasked with a research paper, the process of finding reliable sources is a critical step in building a strong foundation for your work. 

Here's a step-by-step guide on how to effectively find sources that will enhance the quality and credibility of your research:

Use Online Databases

Exploring academic databases is a crucial step in finding reliable sources for your research paper. 

These databases, often accessible through online libraries, offer a vast repository of scholarly articles, journals, and research papers. 

Here are examples of research databases for specific subjects:

Medical Sciences

  • ScienceDirect
  • PsychArticles
  • Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection

Computer Science

  • IEEE Xplore
  • ACM Digital Library
  • SpringerLink

Literature and Humanities

  • Project MUSE
  • MLA International Bibliography

Social Sciences

  • Social Sciences Citation Index
  • Sociology Database
  • ProQuest Social Sciences

Here's a detailed guide on how to make the most of online libraries and various academic databases:

Utilize Library Resources

Visiting your local library database is a valuable step in the research process, offering access to a variety of resources and the expertise of librarians. 

Here's how you can make the most of library resources for your research:

Library Catalog

Begin by searching the library catalog to find books, journals, and other materials related to your research topic. Use relevant keywords or titles to narrow down your search.

Once you've identified relevant books and book chapters, head to the book stacks. Libraries organize books according to a systematic classification system, making it easier to find materials on the same subject.

Reference Section

Check the reference section for encyclopedias, dictionaries, and other reference materials. These resources provide concise overviews and can be a great starting point for understanding your topic.

Periodicals Section

Visit the periodicals section to access current and past issues of journal articles and magazines. This is especially useful for finding recent research articles.

Interlibrary Loan Services

If your library doesn't have a specific book or article, take advantage of interlibrary loan services. Librarians can request materials from other libraries, broadening your access to resources.

Digital Libraries and Resources

Many libraries offer digital libraries and online databases. Check if your library provides access to platforms such as ProQuest , EBSCOhost , or other specialized resources.

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Google Smartly

Google is a powerful tool for finding information, but conducting strategic searches is key to efficiently and effectively uncovering relevant sources. Here's how you can smartly use Google Scholar for your research:

  • Use of Keywords: Google operates on keywords, so choose your search terms wisely. Identify key concepts from your research topic to form the basis of your search.
  • Boolean Operators : Utilize Boolean operators such as AND, OR, and NOT to refine your search. For example, using "climate change AND impacts" narrows down results to pages containing both terms.
  • Exact Phrase Search: When looking for an exact phrase, enclose it in quotation marks. This ensures that Google searches for the specific words in the exact order you provide.
  • Use "site:" Operator : To search within a specific website or domain, use the "site:" operator. For example, "site:nytimes.com climate change" will retrieve results only from The New York Times website.
  • Specify File Types : If you're looking for specific document types, use the "filetype:" operator. For instance, "filetype:pdf renewable energy" will retrieve only PDF documents related to renewable energy.
  • Access Scholarly Articles : Google Scholar is a specialized search engine for scholarly articles. Use it to find academic papers, conference papers, and patents.

Check Institutional Repositories

Exploring institutional repositories is a valuable strategy to discover research conducted within universities and institutions. 

These repositories often contain a wealth of scholarly work, including papers, theses, and dissertations. Here's how you can check institutional repositories for relevant materials:

Repository Search Tools

Some universities provide search tools specifically designed for their repositories. Use these tools to perform targeted searches based on your research topic or keywords.

Open Access Platforms

Some institutional repositories are accessible to the public. Platforms like DSpace and EPrints host a multitude of repositories worldwide. Check these platforms for relevant research beyond your own institution.

Theses and Dissertations

Institutional repositories often house a collection of theses and dissertations. Browse this section to find in-depth research on various topics.

Advanced Search Options

If available, use advanced search features in institutional repositories. These may include filters for publication types, publication years, or specific departments.

Full-Text Availability

Some repositories provide full-text access to papers and theses. Ensure to check the availability of full-text versions for comprehensive access to research content.

Explore Government and Organization Websites

Government web sites and reputable organizations serve as reliable repositories of valuable research reports, statistics, and authoritative information. 

When conducting research, tapping into these official sources can add depth and credibility to your paper.

Government Websites

Visit official government websites relevant to your research topic. Examples include:

  • USA.gov (United States)
  • Gov.uk (United Kingdom)
  • Europa.eu (European Union)

Organization Websites

Look for reputable organizations associated with your research area. Examples include:

  • World Health Organization (WHO)
  • United Nations (UN)
  • Pew Research Center

Search for Research Reports

Government agencies and organizations often have dedicated sections for research reports or publications. Explore these sections to find in-depth reports on various topics.

  • Accessing Government Data: Many government websites have dedicated sections for data and statistics. Explore these sections to access official figures, charts, and datasets.
  • Government Data Portals : Some governments provide centralized data portals. Examples include Data.gov in the United States and data.gov.uk in the United Kingdom.
  • Public Health Agencies: For health-related research, explore the websites of public health agencies like the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) or the World Health Organization (WHO).
  • International Organizations : Access International Organizations: For global perspectives, consider websites of international organizations such as the United Nations (UN) or the World Bank.

What Makes a Source Credible?

Now that you know where to find information for your research, it's important to learn how to check if the sources are trustworthy.

Credible sources ensure that your paper is based on reliable and trustworthy information. Here are key factors to consider when evaluating the credibility of a source:

1. Who Wrote The Information?

Authors with expertise or experience in the subject matter are more likely to provide reliable information. Look for their qualifications and affiliations.

2. Where Was The Information Published?

Consider where the information is published. Academic journals, reputable websites, and well-known publishers are generally more trustworthy.

3. Did The Source Undergo A Peer-Review Process?

If the source is from an academic journal, it likely went through a peer-review process. This means experts in the field reviewed the content for accuracy and quality, adding to its credibility.

4. When Was The Information Published Or Last Updated?

For some fields, recent information is crucial, while for others, historical context may be important. Ensure your source is timely and relevant to your research.

5. Does The Source Provide References Or Citations?

Credible sources often cite their information from other reliable sources. Check for a bibliography or references list. This shows that the author has done their homework and supports their claims with evidence.

6. Is The Information Presented Objectively, Or Does It Seem Biased?

Evaluate the objectivity of the source. Look for a balanced presentation of information to avoid bias.

7. Who Is The Intended Audience Of The Source?

Some sources are written for a general audience, while others are meant for experts in a particular field. Choose sources that match the level of depth and expertise required for your research.

8. What Is The Reputation Of The Publisher Or Website?

Well-established publishers and reputable websites are more likely to produce credible content. Check the reputation of the publisher or website to ensure the information meets academic standards.

Employing CRAAP Test

When evaluating the credibility of a source, applying the CRAAP Test can serve as a systematic and comprehensive method. 

The CRAAP Test assesses a source based on five key criteria: Currency, Relevance, Authority, Accuracy, and Purpose. 

Here's how to employ the CRAAP Test to ensure the credibility of your sources:

  • Currency : Assess how recent the information is. Depending on your research topic, you may need the most up-to-date information.
  • Relevance : Evaluate whether the information is directly related to your research topic. Consider the scope and focus of the source to ensure its relevance to your paper.
  • Authority : Examine the credentials and expertise of the author or organization providing the information. 
  • Accuracy : Verify the accuracy of the information by cross-referencing with other reliable sources. 
  • Purpose : Examine the purpose of the source. Consider whether it aims to inform, persuade, entertain, or sell a product.

List of Sources to Avoid

In the digital age, with an abundance of information available, it's essential to discern between credible and unreliable sources. 

Avoiding certain types of sources is crucial for maintaining the integrity and academic rigor of your research. Here's a list of sources to be cautious about or avoid altogether:

While Wikipedia can provide a general overview, it's not considered a reliable academic source. Avoid citing it directly in research papers. Instead, use it as a starting point to gather background information and identify primary sources.

  • Personal Blogs and Websites

Blogs or personal websites may lack peer review or editorial oversight, making the information subjective or unreliable. Use these sources cautiously and verify information from more reputable outlets.

  • Social Media

Information shared on social media platforms may lack verification. Avoid relying solely on tweets, posts, or memes as sources. Instead, look for information from original and verified sources.

  • Self-Published Books

Books without traditional publishers might lack rigorous peer review and editorial processes. Exercise caution and verify the credentials of self-published authors.

  • Commercially-Driven Websites

Be wary of websites that exist primarily for commercial purposes. Information on these sites might be biased or skewed to promote products or services.

  • Extreme Biased Websites

Websites with extreme bias may present information in a skewed manner. Aim for balanced viewpoints from sources that consider multiple perspectives.

  • Outdated Sources

Information, especially in rapidly evolving fields, becomes outdated quickly. Avoid relying on sources that are not current or don't provide the latest information.

  • Predatory Journals

Some journals, known as predatory, exploit the open-access model without maintaining academic standards. Check the credibility of journals before citing them.

  • Non-Academic Encyclopedias

Encyclopedias geared toward a general audience may lack the depth and academic rigor needed for research papers. Prefer academic encyclopedias or peer-reviewed reference materials.

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Tips for Effective Source Selection in Your Research Paper

When delving into the vast sea of information for your research paper, strategic source selection is crucial. Consider these tips to ensure you find the most relevant and reliable sources:

  • Diversify Your Search Strategy

Don't limit yourself to a single database or search engine. Explore a variety of platforms, both academic and mainstream, to gather a comprehensive range of sources.

  • Tap into Subject-Specific Databases

Seek out databases specific to your subject area. Subject-focused databases often provide in-depth and specialized content tailored to your research needs.

  • Verify Author Credibility

Assess the qualifications and expertise of the authors. Look for authors with academic affiliations, relevant degrees, or substantial experience in the field.

  • Check for Peer Review

Prioritize articles and papers that have undergone a peer-review process. Peer-reviewed sources undergo scrutiny by experts in the field, ensuring high-quality and reliable content.

  • Evaluate Source Currency

While historical context is valuable, prioritize recent information for evolving topics. Check for the publication date or the last update of the source to ensure relevance.

  • Consider the Source’s Purpose

Consider the purpose of the source. Identify any potential biases or intentions, and ensure that the source aligns with your research objectives.

  • Use Citation Trails

When you find a relevant source, explore its bibliographic information or list of references. This can lead you to additional valuable sources that contribute to your research.

To sum it up, when you're working on your research paper, it's important to explore different places to find good information. Always check if the sources are trustworthy and have been reviewed by experts. 

Remember, it's not just about finishing your paper; it's about enjoying the journey of discovering new things!

Ready to take your research paper to the next level? Get expert help at MyPerfectWords.com.Our skilled team is here to make sure your work meets top-notch academic standards. Don't miss out on the chance to improve your research paper. Hire our essay writing service today!

Nova A. (Marketing, Literature)

Nova Allison is a Digital Content Strategist with over eight years of experience. Nova has also worked as a technical and scientific writer. She is majorly involved in developing and reviewing online content plans that engage and resonate with audiences. Nova has a passion for writing that engages and informs her readers.

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  • Research Guides

ENG 2150: Writing II - Prof. Rios

  • Finding Sources for Your Paper
  • Finding an Argument to Make
  • Citing Sources
  • Getting Help with Your Paper

Understanding Sources

Authority and relevance of sources.

  • Is contextual
  • Depends on your needs

Ways to Use Sources

Scholarly vs. popular sources.

Location of different kinds of sources on continuum

Expertise and authority of an author

  • What do we know about the author?
  • Have they written or spoken about this topic before?
  • Do they teach at college or university on this topic?
  • Are they affiliated with a research institution or agency or think tank?
  • What do other authors think of this one?

What's in OneSearch?

Onesearch on the library home page.

When you click "Define Your Search," you are presented with options you must select before you can type your search terms:

Search options within the search box

Books (print + ebooks) will search the OneSearch system.

Articles will search the OneSearch system for articles in journals, newspapers, and magazines.

Videos will search the OneSearch system for streaming videos and DVDs

Books + Articles + Videos will search OneSearch for all of the above format types and more.

Databases will link you to a page with an A-Z list of all library databases.

Journals will search the OneSearch system for journals we have online and in print.

Newspapers + Magazines will search the OneSearch system for newspapers and magazines we have online and in print.

Course Reserves will link you to a page listing all the courses where we have items on reserve.

Library Services & Policies will search just the library web pages for info about our services.

Top Search Tips

1. Quote marks around phrases = more precise results

quotation marks around phrases

2. Type AND in all caps between concepts

Search connector words in all caps

3. "Filter" your search results by resource type, date, and more. Use the "Limit to" option for "Peer Reviewed Journals" to get just scholarly journal articles.

Filter my results on left side

4. Use "Advanced Search" mode for greater control

Advanced search mode

Identifying Resource Types in Search Results

  • if there's a "PEER REVIEWED" label on that listing, the article came from a scholarly, peer-reviewed journal
  • if there's no label, the article is from a newspaper or magazine
  • If there is a green "Available Online" link in the listing, that's an ebook
  • If there is no green "Available Online link, that's a print book
  • Chapter from an ebook
  • entries from encyclopedias and dictionaries

Search results page in OneSearch

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Ask A Librarian

Need to find materials for your research paper.

Welcome to the research guide for American History II - Wils! This guide is designed to assist you in locating source material for your research project.

Here you will find information on finding books, articles, and websites for the assignment. 

Our Books page includes print books available in the library as well as our ebook collections that you can use online. 

Our Online Resources page is where you will find links to article databases and resources on picking good websites. 

If you need help with the logistics of research and writing, the Tutorials and Help and Citations  pages provide lots of tips. 

Our phone numbers and addresses are listed under Ask Us!

Happy researching!

Primary vs. Secondary vs. Tertiary Sources

The video below helps to explain the difference between primary, secondary, and tertiary sources.

  • Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary Sources Video Transcript (word document)

Imagine Easy Solutions. (2014, June 2). Understanding Primary & Secondary Sources. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/pmno-Yfetd8

  • Last Updated: Feb 16, 2024 11:27 AM
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EU AI Act: first regulation on artificial intelligence

The use of artificial intelligence in the EU will be regulated by the AI Act, the world’s first comprehensive AI law. Find out how it will protect you.

A man faces a computer generated figure with programming language in the background

As part of its digital strategy , the EU wants to regulate artificial intelligence (AI) to ensure better conditions for the development and use of this innovative technology. AI can create many benefits , such as better healthcare; safer and cleaner transport; more efficient manufacturing; and cheaper and more sustainable energy.

In April 2021, the European Commission proposed the first EU regulatory framework for AI. It says that AI systems that can be used in different applications are analysed and classified according to the risk they pose to users. The different risk levels will mean more or less regulation. Once approved, these will be the world’s first rules on AI.

Learn more about what artificial intelligence is and how it is used

What Parliament wants in AI legislation

Parliament’s priority is to make sure that AI systems used in the EU are safe, transparent, traceable, non-discriminatory and environmentally friendly. AI systems should be overseen by people, rather than by automation, to prevent harmful outcomes.

Parliament also wants to establish a technology-neutral, uniform definition for AI that could be applied to future AI systems.

Learn more about Parliament’s work on AI and its vision for AI’s future

AI Act: different rules for different risk levels

The new rules establish obligations for providers and users depending on the level of risk from artificial intelligence. While many AI systems pose minimal risk, they need to be assessed.

Unacceptable risk

Unacceptable risk AI systems are systems considered a threat to people and will be banned. They include:

  • Cognitive behavioural manipulation of people or specific vulnerable groups: for example voice-activated toys that encourage dangerous behaviour in children
  • Social scoring: classifying people based on behaviour, socio-economic status or personal characteristics
  • Biometric identification and categorisation of people
  • Real-time and remote biometric identification systems, such as facial recognition

Some exceptions may be allowed for law enforcement purposes. “Real-time” remote biometric identification systems will be allowed in a limited number of serious cases, while “post” remote biometric identification systems, where identification occurs after a significant delay, will be allowed to prosecute serious crimes and only after court approval.

AI systems that negatively affect safety or fundamental rights will be considered high risk and will be divided into two categories:

1) AI systems that are used in products falling under the EU’s product safety legislation . This includes toys, aviation, cars, medical devices and lifts.

2) AI systems falling into specific areas that will have to be registered in an EU database:

  • Management and operation of critical infrastructure
  • Education and vocational training
  • Employment, worker management and access to self-employment
  • Access to and enjoyment of essential private services and public services and benefits
  • Law enforcement
  • Migration, asylum and border control management
  • Assistance in legal interpretation and application of the law.

All high-risk AI systems will be assessed before being put on the market and also throughout their lifecycle.

General purpose and generative AI

Generative AI, like ChatGPT, would have to comply with transparency requirements:

  • Disclosing that the content was generated by AI
  • Designing the model to prevent it from generating illegal content
  • Publishing summaries of copyrighted data used for training

High-impact general-purpose AI models that might pose systemic risk, such as the more advanced AI model GPT-4, would have to undergo thorough evaluations and any serious incidents would have to be reported to the European Commission.

Limited risk

Limited risk AI systems should comply with minimal transparency requirements that would allow users to make informed decisions. After interacting with the applications, the user can then decide whether they want to continue using it. Users should be made aware when they are interacting with AI. This includes AI systems that generate or manipulate image, audio or video content, for example deepfakes.

On December 9 2023, Parliament reached a provisional agreement with the Council on the AI act . The agreed text will now have to be formally adopted by both Parliament and Council to become EU law. Before all MEPs have their say on the agreement, Parliament’s internal market and civil liberties committees will vote on it.

More on the EU’s digital measures

  • Cryptocurrency dangers and the benefits of EU legislation
  • Fighting cybercrime: new EU cybersecurity laws explained
  • Boosting data sharing in the EU: what are the benefits?
  • EU Digital Markets Act and Digital Services Act
  • Five ways the European Parliament wants to protect online gamers
  • Artificial Intelligence Act

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This section features overview and background articles for the general public. Press releases and materials for news media are available in the news section .

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  2. How Do You Analyse Sources in Academic Writing?: A Useful Guide for Highschoolers and Undergraduates

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  3. How to Write a Research Paper: Full Guide with Examples

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VIDEO

  1. Contribution in research paper

  2. Selection and Organization of Relevant Historical Evidence and Information

  3. How to Find Secondary Sources

  4. Research Paper Methodology

  5. Writing A Research Paper: Discussion

  6. Secret To Writing A Research Paper

COMMENTS

  1. How to Find Sources

    Research databases. You can search for scholarly sources online using databases and search engines like Google Scholar. These provide a range of search functions that can help you to find the most relevant sources. If you are searching for a specific article or book, include the title or the author's name. Alternatively, if you're just ...

  2. Types of Sources and Where to Find Them: Secondary Sources

    To identify secondary literature, you can do subject searches in the library catalog to find books, or subject searches in article databases to find articles. The most important databases for finding peer-reviewed articles by historians are: America: History and Life, which covers the history of North America and Historical Abstracts, which ...

  3. Finding Secondary Sources

    Check your articles carefully! Literature review articles are secondary sources. However, article called systematic reviews, or Meta-analysis can be either primary or secondary. If you working on an assignment and need primary and/or secondary articles, please consult your professor to determine the type of source.

  4. Secondary Sources

    Citing a source within a source (citing a secondary source) is generally acceptable within academic writing as long as these citations are kept to a minimum. You should use a secondary source only if you are unable to find or retrieve the original source of information. However, if you need to cite a source within a source, follow the ...

  5. What is a Secondary Source?

    For a historical research project, secondary sources are generally scholarly books and articles. A secondary source interprets and analyzes primary sources. These sources are one or more steps removed from the event. Secondary sources may contain pictures, quotes or graphics of primary sources.

  6. Evaluating Sources: Where to Begin

    Understanding the difference between a scholarly and popular source is a crucial step in evaluating credible sources. Primary vs. Secondary Sources. Just as sources can be scholarly or popular, sources are also divided into primary and secondary. A primary source is a firsthand or eyewitness account of information by an individual close to the ...

  7. Secondary Sources:

    Secondary sources are a great place to begin your research. Although the primary sources of law--case law, statutes, and regulations--establish the law on a given topic, it is often difficult to quickly locate answers in them. ... Working papers are an additional source of secondary analysis. They are frequently draft or pre-publication ...

  8. Secondary Sources

    Therefore, the majority of sources in a literature review are secondary sources that present research findings, analysis, and the evaluation of other researcher's works. Reviewing secondary source material can be of value in improving your overall research paper because secondary sources facilitate the communication of what is known about a ...

  9. Research Guides: Data by Subject: Finding Secondary Data

    Secondary data can encompass an enormous range of highly original and extensive studies, including some of the largest and most careful collections of data. This guide is a very quick introduction to locating secondary data sources. We will review the following strategies for locating data: Search, Citation, Databases and Archives, and Producers.

  10. Secondary Sources

    Secondary sources are the published work of scholars specializing in the topic. Secondary sources include scholarly books, articles, and essays (both analyses by contemporary scholars as well as older analyses), surveys, criticism, comparative studies, reference sources, and works on theory and methodology; this is also termed the secondary ...

  11. Secondary sources

    If possible, as a matter of good scholarly practice, find the primary source, read it, and cite it directly rather than citing a secondary source. For example, rather than citing an instructor's lecture or a textbook or encyclopedia that in turn cites original research, find, read, and cite the original research directly (unless an instructor ...

  12. Secondary Sources

    Secondary sources describe, discuss, interpret, comment upon, analyze, evaluate, summarize, and process primary sources. The important thing to keep in mind when trying to decide if a source is primary or secondary is whether or not the author did the thing they are reporting on. If they did, it is a primary source; if they did not, it is a ...

  13. Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources

    Review papers can give you in-depth information on a particular research area. Secondary resources are also often less technical than primary resources. How to find secondary sources: Resources for finding secondary sources . Databases and Indexes -- Databases and indexes are particularly useful for finding review articles.

  14. JSTOR Home

    Harness the power of visual materials—explore more than 3 million images now on JSTOR. Enhance your scholarly research with underground newspapers, magazines, and journals. Explore collections in the arts, sciences, and literature from the world's leading museums, archives, and scholars. JSTOR is a digital library of academic journals ...

  15. Research Guides: Academic Writing: Using Secondary Sources

    A secondary source is a mediary between you and the primary source. Secondary sources can also help your credibility as a writer; when you use them in your writing, it shows that you have done research on the topic, and can enter into the conversation on the topic with other writers. Some examples of secondary sources: - a journal article on ...

  16. Google Scholar Search Help

    First, do a search for your colleague's name, and see if they have a Scholar profile. If they do, click on it, click the "Follow" button next to their name, select "New articles by this author", and click "Done". If they don't have a profile, do a search by author, e.g., [author:s-hawking], and click on the mighty envelope in the left sidebar ...

  17. LibGuides: Research Basics: Primary vs. Secondary Sources

    Also considered as secondary sources are any ancillary materials that were re-used or repurposed from other research. Interestingly, primary source research papers almost always include a review of prior research as part of the introduction or as a "literature review" section. The primary source material only includes those parts that talk ...

  18. Secondary Sources: Definition and Examples

    The most common examples of secondary sources are books that collect information from various primary sources, including textbooks. Other common examples of secondary sources include biographies (but not autobiographies), art reviews, thesis papers and dissertations, reports that gather data from other studies, and nonpersonal essays.

  19. How To Find Sources For A Research Paper: Effective Tips

    Google is a powerful tool for finding information, but conducting strategic searches is key to efficiently and effectively uncovering relevant sources. Here's how you can smartly use Google Scholar for your research: Use of Keywords: Google operates on keywords, so choose your search terms wisely. Identify key concepts from your research topic ...

  20. Finding Sources for Your Research Paper Tutorial

    School research tip #3 - Make good use of references you might find in professional journals, books, or other articles. Most articles in professional journals and/or peer-reviewed research publications will normally include long lists of references. Often, these references are primary sources. School research tip #4 - Keep your research ...

  21. Finding Sources for Your Paper

    When you click "Define Your Search," you are presented with options you must select before you can type your search terms: Books (print + ebooks) will search the OneSearch system. Articles will search the OneSearch system for articles in journals, newspapers, and magazines.. Videos will search the OneSearch system for streaming videos and DVDs. Books + Articles + Videos will search OneSearch ...

  22. Research Guides: American History II

    This guide is designed to assist you in locating source material for your research project. Here you will find information on finding books, articles, and websites for the assignment. Our Books page includes print books available in the library as well as our ebook collections that you can use online. Our Online Resources page is where you will ...

  23. EU AI Act: first regulation on artificial intelligence

    As part of its digital strategy, the EU wants to regulate artificial intelligence (AI) to ensure better conditions for the development and use of this innovative technology. AI can create many benefits, such as better healthcare; safer and cleaner transport; more efficient manufacturing; and cheaper and more sustainable energy.. In April 2021, the European Commission proposed the first EU ...