Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

  • Annotated Bibliography
  • Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
  • Group Presentations
  • Dealing with Nervousness
  • Using Visual Aids
  • Grading Someone Else's Paper
  • Types of Structured Group Activities
  • Group Project Survival Skills
  • Leading a Class Discussion
  • Multiple Book Review Essay
  • Reviewing Collected Works
  • Writing a Case Analysis Paper
  • Writing a Case Study
  • About Informed Consent
  • Writing Field Notes
  • Writing a Policy Memo
  • Writing a Reflective Paper
  • Writing a Research Proposal
  • Generative AI and Writing
  • Acknowledgments

Reflective writing is a process of identifying, questioning, and critically evaluating course-based learning opportunities, integrated with your own observations, experiences, impressions, beliefs, assumptions, or biases, and which describes how this process stimulated new or creative understanding about the content of the course.

A reflective paper describes and explains in an introspective, first person narrative, your reactions and feelings about either a specific element of the class [e.g., a required reading; a film shown in class] or more generally how you experienced learning throughout the course. Reflective writing assignments can be in the form of a single paper, essays, portfolios, journals, diaries, or blogs. In some cases, your professor may include a reflective writing assignment as a way to obtain student feedback that helps improve the course, either in the moment or for when the class is taught again.

How to Write a Reflection Paper . Academic Skills, Trent University; Writing a Reflection Paper . Writing Center, Lewis University; Critical Reflection . Writing and Communication Centre, University of Waterloo; Tsingos-Lucas et al. "Using Reflective Writing as a Predictor of Academic Success in Different Assessment Formats." American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 81 (2017): Article 8.

Benefits of Reflective Writing Assignments

As the term implies, a reflective paper involves looking inward at oneself in contemplating and bringing meaning to the relationship between course content and the acquisition of new knowledge . Educational research [Bolton, 2010; Ryan, 2011; Tsingos-Lucas et al., 2017] demonstrates that assigning reflective writing tasks enhances learning because it challenges students to confront their own assumptions, biases, and belief systems around what is being taught in class and, in so doing, stimulate student’s decisions, actions, attitudes, and understanding about themselves as learners and in relation to having mastery over their learning. Reflection assignments are also an opportunity to write in a first person narrative about elements of the course, such as the required readings, separate from the exegetic and analytical prose of academic research papers.

Reflection writing often serves multiple purposes simultaneously. In no particular order, here are some of reasons why professors assign reflection papers:

  • Enhances learning from previous knowledge and experience in order to improve future decision-making and reasoning in practice . Reflective writing in the applied social sciences enhances decision-making skills and academic performance in ways that can inform professional practice. The act of reflective writing creates self-awareness and understanding of others. This is particularly important in clinical and service-oriented professional settings.
  • Allows students to make sense of classroom content and overall learning experiences in relation to oneself, others, and the conditions that shaped the content and classroom experiences . Reflective writing places you within the course content in ways that can deepen your understanding of the material. Because reflective thinking can help reveal hidden biases, it can help you critically interrogate moments when you do not like or agree with discussions, readings, or other aspects of the course.
  • Increases awareness of one’s cognitive abilities and the evidence for these attributes . Reflective writing can break down personal doubts about yourself as a learner and highlight specific abilities that may have been hidden or suppressed due to prior assumptions about the strength of your academic abilities [e.g., reading comprehension; problem-solving skills]. Reflective writing, therefore, can have a positive affective [i.e., emotional] impact on your sense of self-worth.
  • Applying theoretical knowledge and frameworks to real experiences . Reflective writing can help build a bridge of relevancy between theoretical knowledge and the real world. In so doing, this form of writing can lead to a better understanding of underlying theories and their analytical properties applied to professional practice.
  • Reveals shortcomings that the reader will identify . Evidence suggests that reflective writing can uncover your own shortcomings as a learner, thereby, creating opportunities to anticipate the responses of your professor may have about the quality of your coursework. This can be particularly productive if the reflective paper is written before final submission of an assignment.
  • Helps students identify their tacit [a.k.a., implicit] knowledge and possible gaps in that knowledge . Tacit knowledge refers to ways of knowing rooted in lived experience, insight, and intuition rather than formal, codified, categorical, or explicit knowledge. In so doing, reflective writing can stimulate students to question their beliefs about a research problem or an element of the course content beyond positivist modes of understanding and representation.
  • Encourages students to actively monitor their learning processes over a period of time . On-going reflective writing in journals or blogs, for example, can help you maintain or adapt learning strategies in other contexts. The regular, purposeful act of reflection can facilitate continuous deep thinking about the course content as it evolves and changes throughout the term. This, in turn, can increase your overall confidence as a learner.
  • Relates a student’s personal experience to a wider perspective . Reflection papers can help you see the big picture associated with the content of a course by forcing you to think about the connections between scholarly content and your lived experiences outside of school. It can provide a macro-level understanding of one’s own experiences in relation to the specifics of what is being taught.
  • If reflective writing is shared, students can exchange stories about their learning experiences, thereby, creating an opportunity to reevaluate their original assumptions or perspectives . In most cases, reflective writing is only viewed by your professor in order to ensure candid feedback from students. However, occasionally, reflective writing is shared and openly discussed in class. During these discussions, new or different perspectives and alternative approaches to solving problems can be generated that would otherwise be hidden. Sharing student's reflections can also reveal collective patterns of thought and emotions about a particular element of the course.

Bolton, Gillie. Reflective Practice: Writing and Professional Development . London: Sage, 2010; Chang, Bo. "Reflection in Learning." Online Learning 23 (2019), 95-110; Cavilla, Derek. "The Effects of Student Reflection on Academic Performance and Motivation." Sage Open 7 (July-September 2017): 1–13; Culbert, Patrick. “Better Teaching? You Can Write On It “ Liberal Education (February 2022); McCabe, Gavin and Tobias Thejll-Madsen. The Reflection Toolkit . University of Edinburgh; The Purpose of Reflection . Introductory Composition at Purdue University; Practice-based and Reflective Learning . Study Advice Study Guides, University of Reading; Ryan, Mary. "Improving Reflective Writing in Higher Education: A Social Semiotic Perspective." Teaching in Higher Education 16 (2011): 99-111; Tsingos-Lucas et al. "Using Reflective Writing as a Predictor of Academic Success in Different Assessment Formats." American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 81 (2017): Article 8; What Benefits Might Reflective Writing Have for My Students? Writing Across the Curriculum Clearinghouse; Rykkje, Linda. "The Tacit Care Knowledge in Reflective Writing: A Practical Wisdom." International Practice Development Journal 7 (September 2017): Article 5; Using Reflective Writing to Deepen Student Learning . Center for Writing, University of Minnesota.

How to Approach Writing a Reflection Paper

Thinking About Reflective Thinking

Educational theorists have developed numerous models of reflective thinking that your professor may use to frame a reflective writing assignment. These models can help you systematically interpret your learning experiences, thereby ensuring that you ask the right questions and have a clear understanding of what should be covered. A model can also represent the overall structure of a reflective paper. Each model establishes a different approach to reflection and will require you to think about your writing differently. If you are unclear how to fit your writing within a particular reflective model, seek clarification from your professor. There are generally two types of reflective writing assignments, each approached in slightly different ways.

1.  Reflective Thinking about Course Readings

This type of reflective writing focuses on thoughtfully thinking about the course readings that underpin how most students acquire new knowledge and understanding about the subject of a course. Reflecting on course readings is often assigned in freshmen-level, interdisciplinary courses where the required readings examine topics viewed from multiple perspectives and, as such, provide different ways of analyzing a topic, issue, event, or phenomenon. The purpose of reflective thinking about course readings in the social and behavioral sciences is to elicit your opinions, beliefs, and feelings about the research and its significance. This type of writing can provide an opportunity to break down key assumptions you may have and, in so doing, reveal potential biases in how you interpret the scholarship.

If you are assigned to reflect on course readings, consider the following methods of analysis as prompts that can help you get started :

  • Examine carefully the main introductory elements of the reading, including the purpose of the study, the theoretical framework being used to test assumptions, and the research questions being addressed. Think about what ideas stood out to you. Why did they? Were these ideas new to you or familiar in some way based on your own lived experiences or prior knowledge?
  • Develop your ideas around the readings by asking yourself, what do I know about this topic? Where does my existing knowledge about this topic come from? What are the observations or experiences in my life that influence my understanding of the topic? Do I agree or disagree with the main arguments, recommended course of actions, or conclusions made by the author(s)? Why do I feel this way and what is the basis of these feelings?
  • Make connections between the text and your own beliefs, opinions, or feelings by considering questions like, how do the readings reinforce my existing ideas or assumptions? How the readings challenge these ideas or assumptions? How does this text help me to better understand this topic or research in ways that motivate me to learn more about this area of study?

2.  Reflective Thinking about Course Experiences

This type of reflective writing asks you to critically reflect on locating yourself at the conceptual intersection of theory and practice. The purpose of experiential reflection is to evaluate theories or disciplinary-based analytical models based on your introspective assessment of the relationship between hypothetical thinking and practical reality; it offers a way to consider how your own knowledge and skills fit within professional practice. This type of writing also provides an opportunity to evaluate your decisions and actions, as well as how you managed your subsequent successes and failures, within a specific theoretical framework. As a result, abstract concepts can crystallize and become more relevant to you when considered within your own experiences. This can help you formulate plans for self-improvement as you learn.

If you are assigned to reflect on your experiences, consider the following questions as prompts to help you get started :

  • Contextualize your reflection in relation to the overarching purpose of the course by asking yourself, what did you hope to learn from this course? What were the learning objectives for the course and how did I fit within each of them? How did these goals relate to the main themes or concepts of the course?
  • Analyze how you experienced the course by asking yourself, what did I learn from this experience? What did I learn about myself? About working in this area of research and study? About how the course relates to my place in society? What assumptions about the course were supported or refuted?
  • Think introspectively about the ways you experienced learning during the course by asking yourself, did your learning experiences align with the goals or concepts of the course? Why or why do you not feel this way? What was successful and why do you believe this? What would you do differently and why is this important? How will you prepare for a future experience in this area of study?

NOTE: If you are assigned to write a journal or other type of on-going reflection exercise, a helpful approach is to reflect on your reflections by re-reading what you have already written. In other words, review your previous entries as a way to contextualize your feelings, opinions, or beliefs regarding your overall learning experiences. Over time, this can also help reveal hidden patterns or themes related to how you processed your learning experiences. Consider concluding your reflective journal with a summary of how you felt about your learning experiences at critical junctures throughout the course, then use these to write about how you grew as a student learner and how the act of reflecting helped you gain new understanding about the subject of the course and its content.

ANOTHER NOTE: Regardless of whether you write a reflection paper or a journal, do not focus your writing on the past. The act of reflection is intended to think introspectively about previous learning experiences. However, reflective thinking should document the ways in which you progressed in obtaining new insights and understandings about your growth as a learner that can be carried forward in subsequent coursework or in future professional practice. Your writing should reflect a furtherance of increasing personal autonomy and confidence gained from understanding more about yourself as a learner.

Structure and Writing Style

There are no strict academic rules for writing a reflective paper. Reflective writing may be assigned in any class taught in the social and behavioral sciences and, therefore, requirements for the assignment can vary depending on disciplinary-based models of inquiry and learning. The organization of content can also depend on what your professor wants you to write about or based on the type of reflective model used to frame the writing assignment. Despite these possible variations, below is a basic approach to organizing and writing a good reflective paper, followed by a list of problems to avoid.

Pre-flection

In most cases, it's helpful to begin by thinking about your learning experiences and outline what you want to focus on before you begin to write the paper. This can help you organize your thoughts around what was most important to you and what experiences [good or bad] had the most impact on your learning. As described by the University of Waterloo Writing and Communication Centre, preparing to write a reflective paper involves a process of self-analysis that can help organize your thoughts around significant moments of in-class knowledge discovery.

  • Using a thesis statement as a guide, note what experiences or course content stood out to you , then place these within the context of your observations, reactions, feelings, and opinions. This will help you develop a rough outline of key moments during the course that reflect your growth as a learner. To identify these moments, pose these questions to yourself: What happened? What was my reaction? What were my expectations and how were they different from what transpired? What did I learn?
  • Critically think about your learning experiences and the course content . This will help you develop a deeper, more nuanced understanding about why these moments were significant or relevant to you. Use the ideas you formulated during the first stage of reflecting to help you think through these moments from both an academic and personal perspective. From an academic perspective, contemplate how the experience enhanced your understanding of a concept, theory, or skill. Ask yourself, did the experience confirm my previous understanding or challenge it in some way. As a result, did this highlight strengths or gaps in your current knowledge? From a personal perspective, think introspectively about why these experiences mattered, if previous expectations or assumptions were confirmed or refuted, and if this surprised, confused, or unnerved you in some way.
  • Analyze how these experiences and your reactions to them will shape your future thinking and behavior . Reflection implies looking back, but the most important act of reflective writing is considering how beliefs, assumptions, opinions, and feelings were transformed in ways that better prepare you as a learner in the future. Note how this reflective analysis can lead to actions you will take as a result of your experiences, what you will do differently, and how you will apply what you learned in other courses or in professional practice.

Basic Structure and Writing Style

Reflective Background and Context

The first part of your reflection paper should briefly provide background and context in relation to the content or experiences that stood out to you. Highlight the settings, summarize the key readings, or narrate the experiences in relation to the course objectives. Provide background that sets the stage for your reflection. You do not need to go into great detail, but you should provide enough information for the reader to understand what sources of learning you are writing about [e.g., course readings, field experience, guest lecture, class discussions] and why they were important. This section should end with an explanatory thesis statement that expresses the central ideas of your paper and what you want the readers to know, believe, or understand after they finish reading your paper.

Reflective Interpretation

Drawing from your reflective analysis, this is where you can be personal, critical, and creative in expressing how you felt about the course content and learning experiences and how they influenced or altered your feelings, beliefs, assumptions, or biases about the subject of the course. This section is also where you explore the meaning of these experiences in the context of the course and how you gained an awareness of the connections between these moments and your own prior knowledge.

Guided by your thesis statement, a helpful approach is to interpret your learning throughout the course with a series of specific examples drawn from the course content and your learning experiences. These examples should be arranged in sequential order that illustrate your growth as a learner. Reflecting on each example can be done by: 1)  introducing a theme or moment that was meaningful to you, 2) describing your previous position about the learning moment and what you thought about it, 3) explaining how your perspective was challenged and/or changed and why, and 4) introspectively stating your current or new feelings, opinions, or beliefs about that experience in class.

It is important to include specific examples drawn from the course and placed within the context of your assumptions, thoughts, opinions, and feelings. A reflective narrative without specific examples does not provide an effective way for the reader to understand the relationship between the course content and how you grew as a learner.

Reflective Conclusions

The conclusion of your reflective paper should provide a summary of your thoughts, feelings, or opinions regarding what you learned about yourself as a result of taking the course. Here are several ways you can frame your conclusions based on the examples you interpreted and reflected on what they meant to you. Each example would need to be tied to the basic theme [thesis statement] of your reflective background section.

  • Your reflective conclusions can be described in relation to any expectations you had before taking the class [e.g., “I expected the readings to not be relevant to my own experiences growing up in a rural community, but the research actually helped me see that the challenges of developing my identity as a child of immigrants was not that unusual...”].
  • Your reflective conclusions can explain how what you learned about yourself will change your actions in the future [e.g., “During a discussion in class about the challenges of helping homeless people, I realized that many of these people hate living on the street but lack the ability to see a way out. This made me realize that I wanted to take more classes in psychology...”].
  • Your reflective conclusions can describe major insights you experienced a critical junctures during the course and how these moments enhanced how you see yourself as a student learner [e.g., "The guest speaker from the Head Start program made me realize why I wanted to pursue a career in elementary education..."].
  • Your reflective conclusions can reconfigure or reframe how you will approach professional practice and your understanding of your future career aspirations [e.g.,, "The course changed my perceptions about seeking a career in business finance because it made me realize I want to be more engaged in customer service..."]
  • Your reflective conclusions can explore any learning you derived from the act of reflecting itself [e.g., “Reflecting on the course readings that described how minority students perceive campus activities helped me identify my own biases about the benefits of those activities in acclimating to campus life...”].

NOTE: The length of a reflective paper in the social sciences is usually less than a traditional research paper. However, don’t assume that writing a reflective paper is easier than writing a research paper. A well-conceived critical reflection paper often requires as much time and effort as a research paper because you must purposeful engage in thinking about your learning in ways that you may not be comfortable with or used to. This is particular true while preparing to write because reflective papers are not as structured as a traditional research paper and, therefore, you have to think deliberately about how you want to organize the paper and what elements of the course you want to reflect upon.

ANOTHER NOTE: Do not limit yourself to using only text in reflecting on your learning. If you believe it would be helpful, consider using creative modes of thought or expression such as, illustrations, photographs, or material objects that reflects an experience related to the subject of the course that was important to you [e.g., like a ticket stub to a renowned speaker on campus]. Whatever non-textual element you include, be sure to describe the object's relevance to your personal relationship to the course content.

Problems to Avoid

A reflective paper is not a “mind dump” . Reflective papers document your personal and emotional experiences and, therefore, they do not conform to rigid structures, or schema, to organize information. However, the paper should not be a disjointed, stream-of-consciousness narrative. Reflective papers are still academic pieces of writing that require organized thought, that use academic language and tone , and that apply intellectually-driven critical thinking to the course content and your learning experiences and their significance.

A reflective paper is not a research paper . If you are asked to reflect on a course reading, the reflection will obviously include some description of the research. However, the goal of reflective writing is not to present extraneous ideas to the reader or to "educate" them about the course. The goal is to share a story about your relationship with the learning objectives of the course. Therefore, unlike research papers, you are expected to write from a first person point of view which includes an introspective examination of your own opinions, feelings, and personal assumptions.

A reflection paper is not a book review . Descriptions of the course readings using your own words is not a reflective paper. Reflective writing should focus on how you understood the implications of and were challenged by the course in relation to your own lived experiences or personal assumptions, combined with explanations of how you grew as a student learner based on this internal dialogue. Remember that you are the central object of the paper, not the research materials.

A reflective paper is not an all-inclusive meditation. Do not try to cover everything. The scope of your paper should be well-defined and limited to your specific opinions, feelings, and beliefs about what you determine to be the most significant content of the course and in relation to the learning that took place. Reflections should be detailed enough to covey what you think is important, but your thoughts should be expressed concisely and coherently [as is true for any academic writing assignment].

Critical Reflection . Writing and Communication Centre, University of Waterloo; Critical Reflection: Journals, Opinions, & Reactions . University Writing Center, Texas A&M University; Connor-Greene, Patricia A. “Making Connections: Evaluating the Effectiveness of Journal Writing in Enhancing Student Learning.” Teaching of Psychology 27 (2000): 44-46; Good vs. Bad Reflection Papers , Franklin University; Dyment, Janet E. and Timothy S. O’Connell. "The Quality of Reflection in Student Journals: A Review of Limiting and Enabling Factors." Innovative Higher Education 35 (2010): 233-244: How to Write a Reflection Paper . Academic Skills, Trent University; Amelia TaraJane House. Reflection Paper . Cordia Harrington Center for Excellence, University of Arkansas; Ramlal, Alana, and Désirée S. Augustin. “Engaging Students in Reflective Writing: An Action Research Project.” Educational Action Research 28 (2020): 518-533; Writing a Reflection Paper . Writing Center, Lewis University; McGuire, Lisa, Kathy Lay, and Jon Peters. “Pedagogy of Reflective Writing in Professional Education.” Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (2009): 93-107; Critical Reflection . Writing and Communication Centre, University of Waterloo; How Do I Write Reflectively? Academic Skills Toolkit, University of New South Wales Sydney; Reflective Writing . Skills@Library. University of Leeds; Walling, Anne, Johanna Shapiro, and Terry Ast. “What Makes a Good Reflective Paper?” Family Medicine 45 (2013): 7-12; Williams, Kate, Mary Woolliams, and Jane Spiro. Reflective Writing . 2nd edition. London: Red Globe Press, 2020; Yeh, Hui-Chin, Shih-hsien Yang, Jo Shan Fu, and Yen-Chen Shih. “Developing College Students’ Critical Thinking through Reflective Writing.” Higher Education Research and Development (2022): 1-16.

Writing Tip

Focus on Reflecting, Not on Describing

Minimal time and effort should be spent describing the course content you are asked to reflect upon. The purpose of a reflection assignment is to introspectively contemplate your reactions to and feeling about an element of the course. D eflecting the focus away from your own feelings by concentrating on describing the course content can happen particularly if "talking about yourself" [i.e., reflecting] makes you uncomfortable or it is intimidating. However, the intent of reflective writing is to overcome these inhibitions so as to maximize the benefits of introspectively assessing your learning experiences. Keep in mind that, if it is relevant, your feelings of discomfort could be a part of how you critically reflect on any challenges you had during the course [e.g., you realize this discomfort inhibited your willingness to ask questions during class, it fed into your propensity to procrastinate, or it made it difficult participating in groups].

Writing a Reflection Paper . Writing Center, Lewis University; Reflection Paper . Cordia Harrington Center for Excellence, University of Arkansas.

Another Writing Tip

Helpful Videos about Reflective Writing

These two short videos succinctly describe how to approach a reflective writing assignment. They are produced by the Academic Skills department at the University of Melbourne and the Skills Team of the University of Hull, respectively.

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reflection paper about research design

Guide on How to Write a Reflection Paper with Free Tips and Example

reflection paper about research design

A reflection paper is a very common type of paper among college students. Almost any subject you enroll in requires you to express your opinion on certain matters. In this article, we will explain how to write a reflection paper and provide examples and useful tips to make the essay writing process easier.

Reflection papers should have an academic tone yet be personal and subjective. In this paper, you should analyze and reflect upon how an experience, academic task, article, or lecture shaped your perception and thoughts on a subject.

Here is what you need to know about writing an effective critical reflection paper. Stick around until the end of our guide to get some useful writing tips from the writing team at EssayPro — a research paper writing service

What Is a Reflection Paper

A reflection paper is a type of paper that requires you to write your opinion on a topic, supporting it with your observations and personal experiences. As opposed to presenting your reader with the views of other academics and writers, in this essay, you get an opportunity to write your point of view—and the best part is that there is no wrong answer. It is YOUR opinion, and it is your job to express your thoughts in a manner that will be understandable and clear for all readers that will read your paper. The topic range is endless. Here are some examples: whether or not you think aliens exist, your favorite TV show, or your opinion on the outcome of WWII. You can write about pretty much anything.

There are three types of reflection paper; depending on which one you end up with, the tone you write with can be slightly different. The first type is the educational reflective paper. Here your job is to write feedback about a book, movie, or seminar you attended—in a manner that teaches the reader about it. The second is the professional paper. Usually, it is written by people who study or work in education or psychology. For example, it can be a reflection of someone’s behavior. And the last is the personal type, which explores your thoughts and feelings about an individual subject.

However, reflection paper writing will stop eventually with one very important final paper to write - your resume. This is where you will need to reflect on your entire life leading up to that moment. To learn how to list education on resume perfectly, follow the link on our dissertation writing services .

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Free Reflection Paper Example

Now that we went over all of the essentials about a reflection paper and how to approach it, we would like to show you some examples that will definitely help you with getting started on your paper.

Reflection Paper Format

Reflection papers typically do not follow any specific format. Since it is your opinion, professors usually let you handle them in any comfortable way. It is best to write your thoughts freely, without guideline constraints. If a personal reflection paper was assigned to you, the format of your paper might depend on the criteria set by your professor. College reflection papers (also known as reflection essays) can typically range from about 400-800 words in length.

Here’s how we can suggest you format your reflection paper:

common reflection paper format

How to Start a Reflection Paper

The first thing to do when beginning to work on a reflection essay is to read your article thoroughly while taking notes. Whether you are reflecting on, for example, an activity, book/newspaper, or academic essay, you want to highlight key ideas and concepts.

You can start writing your reflection paper by summarizing the main concept of your notes to see if your essay includes all the information needed for your readers. It is helpful to add charts, diagrams, and lists to deliver your ideas to the audience in a better fashion.

After you have finished reading your article, it’s time to brainstorm. We’ve got a simple brainstorming technique for writing reflection papers. Just answer some of the basic questions below:

  • How did the article affect you?
  • How does this article catch the reader’s attention (or does it all)?
  • Has the article changed your mind about something? If so, explain how.
  • Has the article left you with any questions?
  • Were there any unaddressed critical issues that didn’t appear in the article?
  • Does the article relate to anything from your past reading experiences?
  • Does the article agree with any of your past reading experiences?

Here are some reflection paper topic examples for you to keep in mind before preparing to write your own:

  • How my views on rap music have changed over time
  • My reflection and interpretation of Moby Dick by Herman Melville
  • Why my theory about the size of the universe has changed over time
  • How my observations for clinical psychological studies have developed in the last year

The result of your brainstorming should be a written outline of the contents of your future paper. Do not skip this step, as it will ensure that your essay will have a proper flow and appropriate organization.

Another good way to organize your ideas is to write them down in a 3-column chart or table.

how to write a reflection paper

Do you want your task look awesome?

If you would like your reflection paper to look professional, feel free to check out one of our articles on how to format MLA, APA or Chicago style

Writing a Reflection Paper Outline

Reflection paper should contain few key elements:

Introduction

Your introduction should specify what you’re reflecting upon. Make sure that your thesis informs your reader about your general position, or opinion, toward your subject.

  • State what you are analyzing: a passage, a lecture, an academic article, an experience, etc...)
  • Briefly summarize the work.
  • Write a thesis statement stating how your subject has affected you.

One way you can start your thesis is to write:

Example: “After reading/experiencing (your chosen topic), I gained the knowledge of…”

Body Paragraphs

The body paragraphs should examine your ideas and experiences in context to your topic. Make sure each new body paragraph starts with a topic sentence.

Your reflection may include quotes and passages if you are writing about a book or an academic paper. They give your reader a point of reference to fully understand your feedback. Feel free to describe what you saw, what you heard, and how you felt.

Example: “I saw many people participating in our weight experiment. The atmosphere felt nervous yet inspiring. I was amazed by the excitement of the event.”

As with any conclusion, you should summarize what you’ve learned from the experience. Next, tell the reader how your newfound knowledge has affected your understanding of the subject in general. Finally, describe the feeling and overall lesson you had from the reading or experience.

There are a few good ways to conclude a reflection paper:

  • Tie all the ideas from your body paragraphs together, and generalize the major insights you’ve experienced.
  • Restate your thesis and summarize the content of your paper.

We have a separate blog post dedicated to writing a great conclusion. Be sure to check it out for an in-depth look at how to make a good final impression on your reader.

Need a hand? Get help from our writers. Edit, proofread or buy essay .

How to Write a Reflection Paper: Step-by-Step Guide

Step 1: create a main theme.

After you choose your topic, write a short summary about what you have learned about your experience with that topic. Then, let readers know how you feel about your case — and be honest. Chances are that your readers will likely be able to relate to your opinion or at least the way you form your perspective, which will help them better understand your reflection.

For example: After watching a TEDx episode on Wim Hof, I was able to reevaluate my preconceived notions about the negative effects of cold exposure.

Step 2: Brainstorm Ideas and Experiences You’ve Had Related to Your Topic

You can write down specific quotes, predispositions you have, things that influenced you, or anything memorable. Be personal and explain, in simple words, how you felt.

For example: • A lot of people think that even a small amount of carbohydrates will make people gain weight • A specific moment when I struggled with an excess weight where I avoided carbohydrates entirely • The consequences of my actions that gave rise to my research • The evidence and studies of nutritional science that claim carbohydrates alone are to blame for making people obese • My new experience with having a healthy diet with a well-balanced intake of nutrients • The influence of other people’s perceptions on the harm of carbohydrates, and the role their influence has had on me • New ideas I’ve created as a result of my shift in perspective

Step 3: Analyze How and Why These Ideas and Experiences Have Affected Your Interpretation of Your Theme

Pick an idea or experience you had from the last step, and analyze it further. Then, write your reasoning for agreeing or disagreeing with it.

For example, Idea: I was raised to think that carbohydrates make people gain weight.

Analysis: Most people think that if they eat any carbohydrates, such as bread, cereal, and sugar, they will gain weight. I believe in this misconception to such a great extent that I avoided carbohydrates entirely. As a result, my blood glucose levels were very low. I needed to do a lot of research to overcome my beliefs finally. Afterward, I adopted the philosophy of “everything in moderation” as a key to a healthy lifestyle.

For example: Idea: I was brought up to think that carbohydrates make people gain weight. Analysis: Most people think that if they eat any carbohydrates, such as bread, cereal, and sugar, they will gain weight. I believe in this misconception to such a great extent that I avoided carbohydrates entirely. As a result, my blood glucose levels were very low. I needed to do a lot of my own research to finally overcome my beliefs. After, I adopted the philosophy of “everything in moderation” as a key for having a healthy lifestyle.

Step 4: Make Connections Between Your Observations, Experiences, and Opinions

Try to connect your ideas and insights to form a cohesive picture for your theme. You can also try to recognize and break down your assumptions, which you may challenge in the future.

There are some subjects for reflection papers that are most commonly written about. They include:

  • Book – Start by writing some information about the author’s biography and summarize the plot—without revealing the ending to keep your readers interested. Make sure to include the names of the characters, the main themes, and any issues mentioned in the book. Finally, express your thoughts and reflect on the book itself.
  • Course – Including the course name and description is a good place to start. Then, you can write about the course flow, explain why you took this course, and tell readers what you learned from it. Since it is a reflection paper, express your opinion, supporting it with examples from the course.
  • Project – The structure for a reflection paper about a project has identical guidelines to that of a course. One of the things you might want to add would be the pros and cons of the course. Also, mention some changes you might want to see, and evaluate how relevant the skills you acquired are to real life.
  • Interview – First, introduce the person and briefly mention the discussion. Touch on the main points, controversies, and your opinion of that person.

Writing Tips

Everyone has their style of writing a reflective essay – and that's the beauty of it; you have plenty of leeway with this type of paper – but there are still a few tips everyone should incorporate.

Before you start your piece, read some examples of other papers; they will likely help you better understand what they are and how to approach yours. When picking your subject, try to write about something unusual and memorable — it is more likely to capture your readers' attention. Never write the whole essay at once. Space out the time slots when you work on your reflection paper to at least a day apart. This will allow your brain to generate new thoughts and reflections.

  • Short and Sweet – Most reflection papers are between 250 and 750 words. Don't go off on tangents. Only include relevant information.
  • Clear and Concise – Make your paper as clear and concise as possible. Use a strong thesis statement so your essay can follow it with the same strength.
  • Maintain the Right Tone – Use a professional and academic tone—even though the writing is personal.
  • Cite Your Sources – Try to cite authoritative sources and experts to back up your personal opinions.
  • Proofreading – Not only should you proofread for spelling and grammatical errors, but you should proofread to focus on your organization as well. Answer the question presented in the introduction.

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How to Write a Reflection Paper

Last Updated: July 8, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Alicia Cook . Alicia Cook is a Professional Writer based in Newark, New Jersey. With over 12 years of experience, Alicia specializes in poetry and uses her platform to advocate for families affected by addiction and to fight for breaking the stigma against addiction and mental illness. She holds a BA in English and Journalism from Georgian Court University and an MBA from Saint Peter’s University. Alicia is a bestselling poet with Andrews McMeel Publishing and her work has been featured in numerous media outlets including the NY Post, CNN, USA Today, the HuffPost, the LA Times, American Songwriter Magazine, and Bustle. She was named by Teen Vogue as one of the 10 social media poets to know and her poetry mixtape, “Stuff I’ve Been Feeling Lately” was a finalist in the 2016 Goodreads Choice Awards. There are 8 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 3,780,114 times.

Reflection papers allow you to communicate with your instructor about how a specific article, lesson, lecture, or experience shapes your understanding of class-related material. Reflection papers are personal and subjective [1] X Research source , but they must still maintain a somewhat academic tone and must still be thoroughly and cohesively organized. Here's what you need to know about writing an effective reflection.

Things You Should Know

  • Write an introduction that outlines the expectations you had and provide a thesis statement in the last sentence.
  • State your conclusions in the body paragraphs of the paper. Explain how you arrived at your conclusions using logic and concrete details.
  • Conclude the paper with a concise summary of your overall experience.

Sample Outline and Paper

reflection paper about research design

Brainstorming

Step 1 Identify the main themes.

  • These sentences should be both descriptive yet straight to the point.

Step 2 Jot down material that stands out in your mind.

  • For lectures or readings, you can write down specific quotations or summarize passages.
  • For experiences, make a note of specific portions of your experience. You could even write a small summary or story of an event that happened during the experience that stands out. Images, sounds, or other sensory portions of your experience work, as well.

Alicia Cook

  • In the first column, list the main points or key experiences. These points can include anything that the author or speaker treated with importance as well as any specific details you found to be important. Divide each point into its own separate row.
  • In the second column, list your personal response to the points you brought up in the first column. Mention how your subjective values, experiences, and beliefs influence your response.
  • In the third and last column, describe how much of your personal response to share in your reflection paper.

Step 4 Ask yourself questions to guide your response.

  • Does the reading, lecture, or experience challenge you socially, culturally, emotionally, or theologically? If so, where and how? Why does it bother you or catch your attention?
  • Has the reading, lecture, or experience changed your way of thinking? Did it conflict with beliefs you held previously, and what evidence did it provide you with in order to change your thought process on the topic?
  • Does the reading, lecture, or experience leave you with any questions? Were these questions ones you had previously or ones you developed only after finishing?
  • Did the author, speaker, or those involved in the experience fail to address any important issues? Could a certain fact or idea have dramatically changed the impact or conclusion of the reading, lecture, or experience?
  • How do the issues or ideas brought up in this reading, lecture, or experience mesh with past experiences or readings? Do the ideas contradict or support each other?

Organizing a Reflection Paper

Step 1 Keep it short and sweet.

  • Verify whether or not your instructor specified a word count for the paper instead of merely following this average.
  • If your instructor demands a word count outside of this range, meet your instructor's requirements.

Step 2 Introduce your expectations.

  • For a reading or lecture, indicate what you expected based on the title, abstract, or introduction.
  • For an experience, indicate what you expected based on prior knowledge provided by similar experiences or information from others.

Step 3 Develop a thesis statement.

  • This is essentially a brief explanation of whether or not your expectations were met.
  • A thesis provides focus and cohesion for your reflection paper.
  • You could structure a reflection thesis along the following lines: “From this reading/experience, I learned...”

Step 4 Explain your conclusions in the body.

  • Your conclusions must be explained. You should provide details on how you arrived at those conclusions using logic and concrete details.
  • The focus of the paper is not a summary of the text, but you still need to draw concrete, specific details from the text or experience in order to provide context for your conclusions.
  • Write a separate paragraph for each conclusion or idea you developed.
  • Each paragraph should have its own topic sentence. This topic sentence should clearly identify your major points, conclusions, or understandings.

Step 5 Conclude with a summary.

  • The conclusions or understandings explained in your body paragraphs should support your overall conclusion. One or two may conflict, but the majority should support your final conclusion.

As You Write

Step 1 Reveal information wisely.

  • If you feel uncomfortable about a personal issue that affects the conclusions you reached, it is wisest not to include personal details about it.
  • If a certain issue is unavoidable but you feel uncomfortable revealing your personal experiences or feelings regarding it, write about the issue in more general terms. Identify the issue itself and indicate concerns you have professionally or academically.

Step 2 Maintain a professional or academic tone.

  • Avoid dragging someone else down in your writing. If a particular person made the experience you are reflecting on difficult, unpleasant, or uncomfortable, you must still maintain a level of detachment as you describe that person's influence. Instead of stating something like, “Bob was such a rude jerk,” say something more along the lines of, “One man was abrupt and spoke harshly, making me feel as though I was not welcome there.” Describe the actions, not the person, and frame those actions within the context of how they influenced your conclusions.
  • A reflection paper is one of the few pieces of academic writing in which you can get away with using the first person pronoun “I.” That said, you should still relate your subjective feelings and opinions using specific evidence to explain them. [8] X Research source
  • Avoid slang and always use correct spelling and grammar. Internet abbreviations like “LOL” or “OMG” are fine to use personally among friends and family, but this is still an academic paper, so you need to treat it with the grammatical respect it deserves. Do not treat it as a personal journal entry.
  • Check and double-check your spelling and grammar after you finish your paper.

Step 3 Review your reflection paper at the sentence level.

  • Keep your sentences focused. Avoid squeezing multiple ideas into one sentence.
  • Avoid sentence fragments. Make sure that each sentence has a subject and a verb.
  • Vary your sentence length. Include both simple sentences with a single subject and verb and complex sentences with multiple clauses. Doing so makes your paper sound more conversational and natural, and prevents the writing from becoming too wooden. [9] X Research source

Step 4 Use transitions.

  • Common transitional phrases include "for example," "for instance," "as a result," "an opposite view is," and "a different perspective is."

Step 5 Relate relevant classroom information to the experience or reading.

  • For instance, if reflecting on a piece of literary criticism, you could mention how your beliefs and ideas about the literary theory addressed in the article relate to what your instructor taught you about it or how it applies to prose and poetry read in class.
  • As another example, if reflecting on a new social experience for a sociology class, you could relate that experience to specific ideas or social patterns discussed in class.

Expert Q&A

Alicia Cook

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Write an Essay

  • ↑ https://www.csuohio.edu/writing-center/reflection-papers
  • ↑ https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/assignments/reflectionpaper
  • ↑ Alicia Cook. Professional Writer. Expert Interview. 11 December 2020.
  • ↑ https://www.trentu.ca/academicskills/how-guides/how-write-university/how-approach-any-assignment/how-write-reflection-paper
  • ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/thesis-statements/
  • ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/conclusions/
  • ↑ https://www.anu.edu.au/students/academic-skills/writing-assessment/reflective-writing/reflective-essays
  • ↑ https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/scholarlyvoice/sentencestructure

About This Article

Alicia Cook

To write a reflection paper, start with an introduction where you state any expectations you had for the reading, lesson, or experience you're reflecting on. At the end of your intro, include a thesis statement that explains how your views have changed. In the body of your essay, explain the conclusions you reached after the reading, lesson, or experience and discuss how you arrived at them. Finally, finish your paper with a succinct conclusion that explains what you've learned. To learn how to brainstorm for your paper, keep reading! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Reflection in design education

  • Open access
  • Published: 25 June 2019
  • Volume 30 , pages 885–897, ( 2020 )

Cite this article

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  • Louis Lousberg 1 ,
  • Remon Rooij 1 ,
  • Sylvia Jansen 2 ,
  • Elise van Dooren 1 ,
  • John Heintz 1 &
  • Engbert van der Zaag 1  

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In this article we evaluate the manner in which we at the Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment at the Delft University of Technology encourage the development of the capacity of reflection among our undergraduate students. First we explore the concept of reflection in relation to respectively experiential/reflective learning, reflection in/on action, reflection in higher education and reflection in design education. Next we describe our research object, our Bachelor course in Academic Design Reflection. Two research questions are at hand: (1) does the level of reflection increase during our course and (2) Can the operationalisation in our questionnaire of the definitions of reflection derived from theory statistically be confirmed? We measured and processed statistically the level of reflection of 100 students in 3 of their papers on their design. Results show there is a significant slight increase of this level among the three papers. Results also show that our model of classification is not statistically confirmed in the data. We conclude with a discussion on the implications for further research and for design education.

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Introduction

‘The first challenge for engineering education is to anticipate the capabilities our graduates will need in their future jobs’ (Kamp 2016a , b : p. 12). Professionals with the combined skill of analysis and synthesis are becoming more and more pivotal in a complex and uncertain world, which asks for answers and solutions for today’s and tomorrow’s questions of sustainable and equitable (urban) development. To prepare engineers for their future jobs we need to emphasize not only the academic skills of analysis and research, but also, and more and more, the academic skills of synthesis (Kamp 2016a , b ). In designing, reflection can be added to that as a third skill (cf. van Doorn 2004 : p. 32; Boekholt 1984 ) Our proposition is that rigorous and thorough attention for reflection in design education plays a key role in developing these skills.

Contrary to reflection-in-learning in health professions (e.g. Mann et al. 2009 ) or higher education in general (e.g. Mittendorff 2014 ), little is known of reflection in design education, especially on the effectiveness of learning to reflect. Even though the importance of the development of a reflective practitioner is supported in the literature on (construction) projects (e.g. Ojiako et al. 2008 ; Sage et al. 2010 ). This article contributes to filling this knowledge gap.

Our research object is our third (and final) year Bachelor course in Academic Design Reflection at our Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment at the Delft University of Technology. The objective of the research is to check if our course contributes to the development of the capacity of reflection among our undergraduate students. Two research questions are at hand: (1) does the level of reflection increase during our course and (2) Can the operationalisation in our questionnaire statistically confirm the definition of reflection derived from theory?

In the article we first explore the concept of reflection in learning (Kolb 1984 ; Moon 2004 ), in practice (Schön 1982 ; Moon 2004 ) and in higher education (Brockbank 1989 ; Fry et al. 2003 ; Cowan 2006 ). After presenting the case we next, based on the four levels of reflection developed by Moon ( 2004 )—descriptive writing, descriptive reflection, dialogic reflection, critical reflection—evaluate the development of the level of reflection on design in papers of over a hundred of final year B.Sc. students in Architecture, Urbanism and Building Sciences (AUBS). Over a 10 week period, these students (about 150 two times per academic year) develop both an integral design for a museum and a series of four academic papers underpinning and evaluating (1) the design situation, (2) the design theme, (3) the design process and (4) the relation between design and academic research. From this evaluation we draw conclusions on the effectiveness of the reflection and derive implications for design education.

Exploring reflection

Since the early eighties of the last century reflection has become an issue in literature on professional education (e.g. Schön 1982 ). Depending on their underlying view reflection can be defined in different ways. Reflection can be seen as Dewey’s ( 1933 ) ‘thinking to encompass feelings and emotions in practice settings’ (in: Boud and Garrick 1999 : p. 4), as ‘thinking about doing something while doing it’ (Schön 1982 : p. 54), as ‘reflective learning’ (Moon 2004 : p. 80) or as ‘a means to engage in making sense of experience in situations that are rich and complex and which do not lend themselves to being simplified by the use of concepts and frameworks that can be taught’ (Boud and Garrick 1999 : p. 4). Trying to be applicable to different context’s these definitions are necessarily general. Within the context of reflection in design education in our course we define it for our students, close to the definition of Reflection (in Action) of Schön but broader, as ‘thinking about your own work’.

Experiential learning or reflective learning

Departing from this ‘thinking about your own work’, for our students in AUBS it is thinking about your own design. Design is an object here (to think about), similar to experience as an object (to think about). This brings us to the theory of experiential learning as coined by Kolb ( 1984 ). Kolb defines experiential learning as ‘the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience’ (Kolb 1984 : p. 38).

Moon ( 2004 ) distinguishes experiential learning from reflective learning. Reflection is ‘a form of mental processing—like a form of thinking- that we may use to fulfil a purpose or to achieve some anticipated outcome or we may simply ‘be reflective’ and then an outcome can be unexpected.‘(ibid: 82) and in an academic context ‘reflection/reflective learning or reflective writing (-), is also likely to involve a conscious and stated purpose for the reflection, with an outcome specified in terms of learning, action or clarification. It may be preceded by a description of the purpose and/or subject matter of the reflection. The process and outcome of reflective work are most likely to be in a represented (e.g., written) form, to be seen by others and to be assessed (-).‘(ibid: 83).

In literature several definitions of experiential learning are suggested for educational contexts; unanimity from this range of views is not possible. The root cause of this seems to be lying in the variety of views of experience (ibid: 109). Here, in our cause, the experience was the experience of design(ing). Hence we define experiential learning as ‘a process in which an experience is reflected upon and then translated into concepts (-)’ (ibid: 109), supported by the proposition that experiential learning in academic contexts seems to occur in situations wherein ‘the material of learning is ill-structured and challenging to a learner’ (ibid: 129), designing is exactly such a situation (Simon 1969 ).

The difference between experiential learning and reflective learning seems to be lying in an immediate reflection in experiential learning and a reflection afterwards in reflective learning in an academic context as Moon defined it. Because students in our course were not asked to record their findings immediately while designing, but to reflect afterwards, the concept of reflective learning is more appropriate in this case.

Reflection in action or on action

Similar to this distinction between experiential and reflective learning is the distinction between reflection-in-action (Schön 1982 ) and reflection-on-action (Schon 1987 ). Schön’s in the architectural world well received work from 1982 ‘The reflective practitioner’ describes based on only a few cases how professionals in general and architects in particular think while they do. Schön coins this as Reflection in Action (ibid: 54). He clearly distinguishes this from reflection-on-action that relates to the evaluation of the effects of the act according to predetermined goals (Schön 1987). Because we didn’t ask students to record their thoughts while designing but immediately afterwards and taking Schön’s distinction strictly, reflection-in-action is not applicable in our case but reflection-on-action is.

Regarding this reflection-on-action as we applied in our case a distinction can be made between analytical reflection and evaluative reflection (Cowan 2006 : p. 66, 81). Analytical reflection reflects on how e.g. things are done and evaluative reflection is ‘a process which leads to the making of a judgement in relation to a set of values or criteria, and one in which the judgement often leads to a consequent decision’ (ibid: 81). In this research paper 3 on the design process is an example of analytical and paper 4 an example of evaluative reflection. Although both types occur, they are not evaluated separately in this research.

Reflection in higher education

In literature on more or less similar courses as ours often no distinction is made between reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action. e.g. ‘becoming a reflective practitioner’ (Fry et al. 2003 : p. 215 etc.) assumes that learning how to reflect on action or reflective learning as defined by Moon, will develop reflection-in-action. In literature courses are described that assume to develop reflective practice by letting the student use direct reflective dialogue (Schön 1982 ) as a start to develop reflection on a higher level. Reflective dialogue is characteristic for e.g. the design process wherein ill-structured problems are contextualised and framed in an ‘inner dialogue’ between the design as designed by the designer and the designers thoughts about this design. e.g. Brockbank et al. ( 1989 ) describe the process by which student learners engage in critically reflective learning through reflective dialogue. They lean heavily on the theory of single- and double loop learning as proposed by Argyris ( 1977 ), where single loop learning as ‘instrumental learning which leaves underlying values and theories unchanged’ can provoke double loop learning as ‘learning where assumptions are challenged and underlying values are changed’ by questioning these assumptions (Brockbank et al. 1989 : p. 43, 45). In our course we asked the students first to register their design decisions in a log called ‘Design and Research-scheme’ and base their afterwards written reflections on that scheme.

Design can be described as reflection in action (Schön 1983). This is confirmed by Roozenburg and Dorst ( 1998 : p. 35) as they write ‘modelling design as reflection in action works particularly well for conceptual stages in a design process’. As indicated above, according to Schön (1983) distinctions can be made between reflection-in- and reflection-on-action; but also between reflection on the design and reflection on the design process. Congruent with it in our course the students were asked in their paper 2 for the benefit of reflecting on the design to generate knowledge over a particular design theme based on scientific literature and in their paper 3 to reflect on their own design process on the basis of five generic elements of Van Dooren et al. ( 2014 ). Both kinds of reflection, reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action are believed to contribute to the level of doing while designing (Van Dooren et al. 2017 ), exactly the reason why we organize the course Academic Design Reflection for our undergraduate students. Also the reason why we would like to know if the level of reflection of the students is rising while following this course. Hence our first research question: Does the level of reflection increases during the course?

Our course is the third 5EC course of a learning line called Academic Skills (AC; 3 × 5EC), consisting of a first year starting course in academic writing AC1, a second year Empirical Research Project AC2 and a third year course AC3 Academic Design Reflection. During the second and third year students are expected to use and deepen their acquired academic skills, such as academic writing, presenting, augmenting and underpinning, and evaluating and positioning in all kinds of design and research work in the other five learning lines: (1) Technology (5 × 5EC), (2) Fundamentals (4 × 5EC), (3) Society, Process and Practice (3 × 5EC), (4) Design (6 × 10EC), and (5) Visualisation, Representation and Form (3 × 5EC).

AC1 offers the student the overarching framework of how AUBS could be understood as a scientific discipline. In addition, the module provides very concrete academic skills, such as setting up and write a report of a literature review, the conventions of academic writing, searching in literature, presentation and debating skills. AC2 offers the student the knowledge and skills to an empirical research for the improvement of an existing design proposal to set up, perform, and report in a research report. The learning goal of AC3 is to relate research directly to design, and to take an argued position in this. AC3 Academic Design Reflection is a course that goes parallel to a 10EC design course, the sixth and final one before students can obtain their Bachelor degree. We explicitly work close together with the architectural supervisors and as a matter of fact we have the same groups of students that follow the design course in our group to teach them how to reflect in an academic way—that is using scientific knowledge and applying scientific ways of working- on their design. To reach the learning goal the student has to write 4 papers, one about the assignment, one about a self-chosen design theme, one on the design process and finally one on the relationship between design and research.

For instance and as indicated in “ Reflection in design education ” section, in the paper on the design process students use a framework particularly developed for making explicit in design education by Van Dooren et al. ( 2014 ). Van Dooren et al. provide an intermediate to make the communication between student and architectural supervisor about the students design effective. Key to this effectiveness is making things explicit. Based on research of the design process, on differences between novices and experts designers and on personal experience in design education practice, Van Dooren et al. have developed a conceptual framework consisting of five generic elements in the design process: (1) exploring and deciding, (2) guiding theme, (3) domains, (4) library of references, and (5) the design language. For the third paper in our research students were asked to reflect on their own design (process) based on these five elements.

In the sequence of paper 1, 2, 3 and 4 we assume there is an increasing level of abstraction, hence in the level of reflection. To measure this level we adapted the four levels of reflection developed by Kember et al. ( 2000 ) and Moon ( 2004 : p. 96, 97)—descriptive writing, descriptive reflection, dialogic reflection, critical reflection. See Fig.  1 . To avoid misinterpretations we used a rather simple definition of academic reflection for the questionnaire: ‘Academic reflection is to think about your own work with the use of scientific knowledge’.

figure 1

The design of the questionnaire

As in the questionnaire of Kember et al. ( 2000 ) we mixed Moon’s four levels of reflection by altering the sequence of questions. Italic questions are from the questionnaire of Kember et al. ( 2000 ) (1 per level). The other operationalisations are by definitions of level of reflection by Moon 2004 , except question 6, 15 and 16, which are based on the evaluation criteria of the learning objective of AC3: the students can reflect in an academic way on their own design project and design process.

We deliberately skipped the possibility of an answer between B and C in order to force a choice by the assessors. Finally we didn’t assume the four levels of reflection to correspond with our division in four papers and regarded the first paper as a kind of a finger exercise. Therefore, we decided to skip the first paper from the research and test the next three on their level of reflection.

The evaluation of the level of reflection of the papers was done by the own AC3-supervisor of the students group and a second AC3 supervisor of another group. So each paper was evaluated by two different evaluators.

Eventually we were interested into what extent it was correct to operationalize the four categories into the questions arranged under these categories. Hence our second research question is: can the operationalisation in our questionnaire of the definitions of reflection derived from theory statistically be confirmed?

Results for research question 1: Does the level of reflection increases during the course Academic Design Reflection?

As explained above, the responses to 16 questions were collected. The analyses for the first research question are performed on the composite sum scores, i.e., the general level of reflection. For this purpose, the homogeneity of the composite sum scores is tested, using Cronbach’s Alpha. The 16 questions show good homogeneity, as shown in Table  1 . Usually, a value for Cronbach’s α of 0.70 or higher is considered to reflect a reliable scale. Because of this result, the scores are summed over the responses to the 16 questions.

The mean sumscores for all three measurement points are provided in Table  2 . The dataset of paper 2 includes 293 cases, of which 155 concern the first evaluator and 138 the second evaluator. After deleting cases with only one evaluator, 129 students remain in the dataset, each of which is evaluated by two evaluators (258 cases). The sumscores range from 16 to 64 and the mean score is 41.9 (std = 10.5).

The dataset of paper 3 includes 297 cases, of which 157 concern the first evaluator and 139 the second evaluator (one is unknown). After deleting cases with only one evaluator, 131 students remain in the dataset (262 cases). The scores range from 20 to 64 and the mean score is 45.4 (std = 10.1).

The dataset of paper 4 includes 296 cases, of which 153 concern the first evaluator and 142 the second evaluator (one is unknown). After deleting cases with only one evaluator, 129 students remain in the dataset (258 cases). The scores range from 16 to 64 and the mean score is 46.9 (std = 11.0).

Table  2 shows that the mean sumscores increase between paper 2 and paper 3 and also between paper 3 and paper 4. This points to an increase in the students’ level of reflection. What is also shown is a difference in the mean evaluation of the first and the second evaluator. This difference is observed at all three measurement points.

The increase in the mean level of reflection over time can be statistically tested using a repeated measures analysis of variance. This is a statistical test that compares several means when these means have come from the same participants (Field 2013 : p 565). In our analysis, the mean sumscores for the students at the three measurement points are compared. This is called the “within-subjects” factor. We also included a variable in the analysis that indicated whether the sumscore was calcaluted for the first or for the second evaluator. This is called the “between-subjects” factor. For the examination of the scores over time it is important that only students are selected that have observations for both evaluators at each one of the three measurement points. This applies to 100 students.

The results for the 100 students are provided in Table  3 and in Fig.  2 . The results resemble the results described above for the total data set. The table shows that the mean sumscore increases over time. This result is supported by the repeated measures anova that shows that the mean sumscore differs statistically significantly over time ( p  < 0.01). Furthermore, the table shows that the mean sumscore is higher for the first evaluator than for the second evaluator on each of the three measurement points. This effect is also statistically significant ( p  < 0.01). Finally, there is no interaction effect between time and evaluator ( p  = 0.48). This means that both first and second evaluator show a similar increase in mean scores over time. This can be clearly seen from Fig.  2 .

figure 2

The increase of level of reflection in subsequently paper 2, 3 and 4 for both evaluators for students without missing observations (n = 100)

Based on Table  3 the total average of the level of reflection of the papers on a scale from 16 minimum to 64 maximum is 44.9.

Answering the first research question ‘Does the level of reflection increases during the course Academic Design Reflection?’ we conclude there is a statistically significant but slight increase of the level of reflection. Further we conclude that the scores of the first evaluator, who was also the supervisor of the student, are slightly higher than the more ‘neutral’ second evaluator. A statistical analysis of the differences in the average level of reflection between all groups of students was unjustified because all the groups were too small.

Finally we wanted to show the results of the analysis on the frequency of the scores (1, 2, 3 and 4) related to the classification that we made in four groups of questions: Descriptive Writing, Reflective Writing, Dialogic Reflection and Critical Reflection (see Fig.  1 ). The frequency of the scores related to the separate questions is statistical normal, meaning that the distribution shows a high frequency of the middle scores 2 and 3 and a low frequency of the extreme scores 1 and 4.

Results for research question 2: Can the operationalisation in our questionnaire of the definitions of reflection derived from theory statistically be confirmed?

For the second research question we explored whether the four levels of reflection that we adapted from the models by Kember et al. ( 2000 ) and Moon ( 2004 : p. 96, 97) could be confirmed in our dataset. This concerns the levels: Descriptive Writing, Reflective Writing, Dialogic Reflection and Critical Reflection (see Fig.  1 ). We used Cronbach’s Alpha to determine the reliability of the various levels, followed by a Principal Component Analyis (PCA) to check the assumed pattern of four different levels of reflection.

The results of the Cronbach’s Alpha test are presented in Table  4 . Taking into account that a scale is judged to be reliable when the coefficient for Cronbach’s Alpha is at least 0.70, all levels of reflection can be considered to have sufficient internal consistency.

To further falsify the validity of the division into four levels we executed an explorative factor analysis, i.e., Principal Components Analysis (PCA). A PCA is a statistical method that can be used to understand the structure of a set of variables (Field 2013 , p. 666). It means that we examined which pattern is prevalent in the sixteen responses to the questions. Responses to questions that highly correlate with each other form a “factor”. Multiple factors can be established. We performed the PCA for each of the three papers, including only cases for which two observations were present. The Varimax rotation method was used. This means that we obtained factors that are independent of each other and that are relatively easy to interpret (Field 2013 , p. 681).

The results showed that for all three measurement points, two factors could be discerned. Together these factors explain 61 (paper 2), 62 (paper 3) and 66 (paper 4) percent of the variance, which is a good result. The items that primarily and consistently load on one of the two factors are question: 1, 2, 3, 11, 14 and 16. This means that these items correlate relatively high with each other. The items relate to “evidence of reflection”, “understanding of the concepts of lectures, module manual and literature”, “the paper shows a backtrack”, “reflected to see if there can be learned”, “integration of lectures, module manual and literature” and “establishment of an argued individual position”. We read the descriptions of the six items carefully to search for a common underlying theme. However, we did not find such a theme. Furthermore, an inspection of these six items shows that they theoretically belong to all four different levels of reflection.

The items that primarily and consistently load on the other factor are question: 4, 6, 9 and 10. Two of these items (“no discussing reflection” and “most reflection is from one perspective”) theoretically belong to the same level of reflection, i.e., the Understanding/Descriptive reflection level. The other two items (“consciousness that acts and events are localized in and influenced by multiple historical and socio-political contexts” and “follows what is required”) belong to different levels. Again, we do not believe that these four items reflect an underlying common theme.

The other questions did not show consistent results; they sometimes showed the highest loading on the one factor and sometimes on the other factor.

Our results differ from the four factor-structure as hypothesized based on the theory of Moon ( 2004 ). First, our results pointed consistently to only two factors instead of four. Besides from that, the questions that made up the two factors differed from what was expected on the basis of the theory by Moon ( 2004 ) and the previous study by Kember et al. ( 2000 ). Moreover, we were unable to explain the results of the PCA, meaning that we could not find a theoretical or logical explanation for the supposed relationships between the items belonging to each one of the factors. Apparently, in this case, the operationalisations of Moon’s definitions and the operationalisations of the learning objectives of the course, do not match statistically with the classification of Moons and Kember et al.

So answering our second research question ‘Can the operationalisation in the questionnaire of the definitions of reflection derived from theory statistically be confirmed?’ we conclude that our model of classification is not statistically confirmed in the data.

The results from the Cronbach’s Alpha test and the PCA seem contradictory as quite reliable results were found with the first method, but the underlying structure could not be confirmed using PCA. We believe that this finding might be explained by the fact that all items show relatively high intercorrelations. This can also been seen from the high value of Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.94/0.95 that we presented for all sixteen items examined at once. Seen from a qualitative point of view, the setup of the questionnaire seems sensible, however not supported by statistical analysis. We assume that the multi interpretability of the questions plays an important role in this. Further research e.g. a test on the difference in interpretation of the questions by asking the evaluators to group the several questions into each of the four levels of reflection instead of giving it in advance, could provide insight.

Conclusions and implications

Conclusions.

Our research object was our Bachelor course in Academic Design Reflection. Two research questions were at hand: (1) does the level of reflection increase during our course and (2) Can the operationalisation in our questionnaire of the definitions of reflection derived from theory statistically be confirmed? The research shows that the average level of reflection of the students papers increases per successively paper and that the total average level of reflection of the papers is sufficient,. Further, we conclude that de scores of the first evaluator, who was also the supervisor of the student, are slightly higher than the more ‘neutral’ second evaluator. Finally the research shows that the classification of the questionnaire into four groups of questions with an ascending reflection level is not supported by statistical analysis, the model doesn’t fit the data, contrary to expectations based on literature. Further research is therefore required, but we already can say a number of things about the implications for our design education.

Implications for design education

Many of the TU Delft fields of engineering and design, such as architecture and the built environment, are positioned in the heart of the so called ‘practical sciences’ (Klaasen 2004 ; Rooij and Frank 2016 ) or ‘engineering sciences’ (Kamp 2016a , b ). Today’s and tomorrow’s complex socio-technical challenges in the built environment, such as sustainable, resilient, fair and healthy spatial development need well considered and integrated (design) solutions. These challenges are the backbone, the rationale and the motivation behind our Architecture &Built Environment academic sub disciplines and our curriculum specialisation tracks, such as architecture, urbanism, landscape architecture, building technology, and management in the built environment. The main knowledge question in our field therefore focuses to a large extent on ‘does it work?’ (e.g. a design, a plan, a solution proposal, a strategy) in contrast to empirical sciences which—via the construction of theories and the formulation of hypotheses—focus on the knowledge question ‘is it true?’.

This specific nature of built environment engineering education requires a specific set of academic design skills in order to (be able to) assess whether or not designs ‘work’. Important umbrella-skills are related to:

the critical assessment of design situations,

the creative development of meaningful design alternatives,

the thorough ex-ante evaluation of the design products,

the andante evaluation of dynamic design processes,

positioning yourself as designer and your design work in the academic and professional debate, and

relating design to (methods of) scientific research.

There is a call and a need from both inside and outside the faculty to significantly improve the academic skills of design students. At the Delft faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment this is for example apparent from quality assurance programmes (e.g. student questionnaires), dialogues with student bodies (e.g. student council and study association, Stylos) and the Board of Studies. Footnote 1 While students learn a lot from the current curricula, they also see room to raise the academic bar substantially. Teaching staff expresses similar views in education evaluation reports. The 2012 QANU visitation committee and the 2017 (self-organised) external audit committee advised the faculty to make better use of the academic design environment (defining it as a missed potential).

Students learn design best by doing —like most skills are learned best by doing them over and over again. But design might be understood better by academic reflection .

We showed that there is significant room for improvement for our bachelor design students. But this also holds for our master students. The faculty is convinced that such an academic reflection skills programme will only be successful, when it is closely related to, or even better, fully integrated into the design projects.

The A&BE faculty already works with a line of actions to evaluate, discuss and improve the academic skills programmes of our design curricula. Two key actions are relevant to present here. First. We are developing a (bilingual) book on Academic skills for architects (‘Academische vaardigheden voor bouwkundigen’) which will explicitly set the exit level of our undergraduate programme and at the same time the entrance level of our master (design) curricula. The idea is that the book will support the undergraduate students during their full 3 year bachelor programme. And it will not only be relevant for our students, but also a help for our design mentors as many of them—we work with a large body of design teachers from practice—explicitly ask for guidance in teaching academic skills and in particular design reflection. Second. We are redeveloping the academic skills programme of our 2 year master curriculum Architecture: both the first year research methods and/or methodology courses and the second year graduation project. For example: all final thesis students developing designs are asked to write a number of small papers reflecting on their graduation project during the year. They are assessed by the full mentor team, including the so called external examiner representing the faculty board of examiners. The structure is in place but still quite some work needs to be done for a fruitful delivery.

Implications for further research

We believe the total average score of reflection can be improved. We assume a higher level of reflection skills is both possible and desirable for our student body. We dedicate an important role to the teachers. The supervisors who take care of the reflection-education now in our course, are design supervisors who have had to learn reflection themselves as in their graduation training only minor attention was paid to their reflection skills. They would, however, be better trained in reflective thinking itself, but also as part of reflection in action. That should give the concept of reflection more depth and make it more clear for them. Instead of the out of educational considerations fairly simple definition of ‘ thinking about your own work ‘ that we have used here, in particular, more attention should be given to ‘(re)considering’ because ‘ reflection on action ‘ after all is about looking back.

Even though the division into groups of level of reflection is not statistically supported, yet, we will still use this division, based on Moon ( 2004 ) for educational reasons. It makes clear to students there are different levels of reflection, in a way that seems to appeal to our students. The idea of getting more distance in a metaphorical sense or an ascending abstraction in the contemplation of one’s own work, in this case the own design, seems at least to trigger students to ‘ loosen up ‘ of their work, making them better able to oversee their work, in our opinion a necessity for reflection.

Finally, in the foregoing we ignored the question of the extent to which the skill to reflect leads to better designs. However, at this moment in our faculty a survey is conducted with the question of what is the view of students about the contribution of reflection to their design skills. It goes without saying that this is a very limited question, but it is a start for future research.

In the 2017 national student questionnaire (NSE) A&BE bachelor and master students value ‘academic skills’ with a score of 3.4 (B.Sc.) and 3.5 (M.Sc.) out of 5, which illustrates the potential for improvement.

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Lousberg, L., Rooij, R., Jansen, S. et al. Reflection in design education. Int J Technol Des Educ 30 , 885–897 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-019-09532-6

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