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  • v.2022; 2022

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Essential Guide to Manuscript Writing for Academic Dummies: An Editor's Perspective

Syed sameer aga.

1 Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Quality Assurance Unit, College of Medicine, King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences (KSAU-HS), King Abdullah International Medical Research Center (KAIMRC), Ministry of National Guard Health Affairs (MNGHA), King Abdulaziz Medical City, Jeddah 21423, Saudi Arabia

2 Molecular Diseases & Diagnostics Division, Infinity Biochemistry Pvt. Ltd, Sajad Abad, Chattabal, Srinagar, Kashmir 190010, India

Saniya Nissar

Associated data.

No data were used in this review.

Writing an effective manuscript is one of the pivotal steps in the successful closure of the research project, and getting it published in a peer-reviewed and indexed journal adds to the academic profile of a researcher. Writing and publishing a scientific paper is a tough task that researchers and academicians must endure in staying relevant in the field. Success in translating the benchworks into the scientific content, which is effectively communicated within the scientific field, is used in evaluating the researcher in the current academic world. Writing is a highly time-consuming and skill-oriented process that requires familiarity with the numerous publishing steps, formatting rules, and ethical guidelines currently in vogue in the publishing industry. In this review, we have attempted to include the essential information that novice authors in their early careers need to possess, to be able to write a decent first scientific manuscript ready for submission in the journal of choice. This review is unique in providing essential guidance in a simple point-wise manner in conjunction with easy-to-understand illustrations to familiarize novice researchers with the anatomy of a basic scientific manuscript.

1. Background

Communication is the pivotal key to the growth of scientific literature. Successfully written scientific communication in the form of any type of paper is needed by researchers and academicians alike for various reasons such as receiving degrees, getting a promotion, becoming experts in the field, and having editorships [ 1 , 2 ].

Here, in this review, we present the organization and anatomy of a scientific manuscript enlisting the essential features that authors should keep in their mind while writing a manuscript.

2. Types of Manuscripts

Numerous types of manuscripts do exist, which can be written by the authors for a possible publication ( Figure 1 ). Primarily, the choice is dependent upon the sort of communication authors want to make. The simplest among the scientific manuscripts is the “Letter to an Editor,” while “Systematic Review” is complex in its content and context [ 3 ].

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Types of manuscripts based on complexity of content and context.

3. Anatomy of the Manuscript

Writing and publishing an effective and well-communicative scientific manuscript is arguably one of the most daunting yet important tasks of any successful research project. It is only through publishing the data that an author gets the recognition of the work, gets established as an expert, and becomes citable in the scientific field [ 4 ]. Among the numerous types of scientific manuscripts which an author can write ( Figure 1 ), original research remains central to most publications [ 4 – 10 ].

A good scientific paper essentially covers the important criteria, which define its worth such as structure, logical flow of information, content, context, and conclusion [ 5 ]. Among various guidelines that are available for the authors to follow, IMRAD scheme is the most important in determining the correct flow of content and structure of an original research paper [ 4 , 11 – 13 ]. IMRAD stands for introduction, methods, results, and discussion ( Figure 2 ). Besides these, other parts of the manuscript are equally essential such as title, abstract, keywords, and conclusion ( Figure 3 ).

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Generalized anatomy of manuscript based on IMRAD format.

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Object name is BRI2022-1492058.003.jpg

Three important contents of the title page—title, abstract, and keywords.

IMRAD scheme was introduced in the early 1900 by publishers to standardize the single format of the scientific manuscript and since then is the universal format used by most the publishing houses [ 6 , 14 – 17 ]. In the next sections, the contents and criteria of each of them are explained in detail. A list of the most common mistakes, which the author makes in these sections, is also provided in the tabulated form [ 18 ] ( Table 1 ).

Common mistakes authors make in their manuscripts.

  • The title is the most important element of the paper, the first thing readers encounter while searching for a suitable paper [ 1 ]. It reflects the manuscript's main contribution and hence should be simple, appealing, and easy to remember [ 7 ].
  • A good title should not be more than 15 words or 100 characters. Sometimes journals ask for a short running title, which should essentially be no more than 50% of the full title. Running titles need to be simple, catchy, and easy to remember [ 19 , 20 ].
  • Keeping the titles extremely long can be cumbersome and is suggestive of the authors' lack of grasp of the true nature of the research done.
  • It usually should be based on the keywords, which feature within the main rationale and/or objectives of the paper. The authors should construct an effective title from keywords existing in all sections of the main text of the manuscript [ 19 ].
  • Having effective keywords within the title helps in the easy discovery of the paper in the search engines, databases, and indexing services, which ultimately is also reflected by the higher citations they attract [ 1 ].
  • It is always better for the title to reflect the study's design or outcome [ 21 ]; thus, it is better for the authors to think of a number of different titles proactively and to choose the one, which reflects the manuscript in all domains, after careful deliberation. The paper's title should be among the last things to be decided before the submission of the paper for publication [ 20 ].
  • Use of abbreviations, jargons, and redundancies such as “a study in,” “case report of,” “Investigations of,” and passive voice should be avoided in the title.

5. Abstract

  • The abstract should essentially be written to answer the three main questions—“What is new in this study?” “What does it add to the current literature?” and “What are the future perspectives?”
  • A well-written abstract is a pivotal part of every manuscript. For most readers, an abstract is the only part of the paper that is widely read, so it should be aimed to convey the entire message of the paper effectively [ 1 ].

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Two major types of abstract—structured and unstructured. Structured abstracts are piecemealed into five different things, each consisting of one or two sentences, while unstructured abstracts consist of single paragraph written about the same things.

  • An effective abstract is a rationalized summary of the whole study and essentially should contain well-balanced information about six things: background, aim, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion [ 6 , 19 ].

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Three C concept followed while writing the manuscript.

  • An abstract should be written at the end, after finishing the writing of an entire manuscript to be able to stand-alone from the main text. It should reflect your study completely without any reference to the main paper [ 19 ].
  • The authors need to limit/write their statements in each section to two or three sentences. However, it is better to focus on results and conclusions, as they are the main parts that interest the readers and should include key results and conclusions made thereof.
  • Inclusion of excessive background information, citations, abbreviations, use of acronyms, lack of rationale/aim of the study, lack of meaningful data, and overstated conclusions make an abstract ineffective.

6. Keywords

  • Keywords are the important words, which feature repeatedly in the study or else cover the main theme/idea/subject of the manuscript. They are used by indexing databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Embase in categorizing and cross-indexing the published article.
  • It is always wise to enlist those words which help the paper to be easily searchable in the databases.
  • Keywords can be of two types: (a) general ones that are provided by the journal or indexing services called as medical subject headings (MeSH) as available in NCBI ( https://www.ncbi.nlm.gov/mesh/ ) and (b) custom ones made by authors themselves based on the subject matter of the study [ 6 , 20 ].
  • Upon submission, journals do usually ask for the provision of five to ten keywords either to categorize the paper into the subject areas or to assign it to the subspecialty for its quick processing.

7. Introduction

  • (i) The whole idea of writing this section is to cover two important questions—“What are the gaps present in the current literature?” and “Why is the current study important?”
  • (ii) Introduction provides an opportunity for the authors to highlight their area of study and provide rationale and justification as to why they are doing it [ 20 , 22 , 23 ].
  • (iii) An effective introduction usually constitutes about 10–15% of the paper's word count [ 22 ].
  • The first paragraph of the introduction should always cover “What is known about the area of study?” or “What present/current literature is telling about the problem?” All relevant and current literature/studies, i.e., original studies, meta-analyses, and systematic reviews, should be covered in this paragraph.
  • The second paragraph should cover “What is unknown or not done about this issue/study area?” The authors need to indicate the aspects of what has not been answered about the broader area of the study until now.
  • The third paragraph should identify the gaps in the current literature and answer “What gaps in the literature would be filled by their current study?” This part essentially identifies the shortcoming of the existing studies.
  • The fourth paragraph should be dedicated to effectively writing “What authors are going to do to fill the gaps?” and “Why do they want to do it?” This paragraph contains two sections—one explains the rationale of the study and introduces the hypothesis of the study in form of questions “What did authors do? and Why they did do so?” and the second enlists specific objectives that the authors are going to explore in this study to answer “Why this study is going to be important?” or “What is the purpose of this study?”.

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Funnel-down scheme followed while writing the introduction section of manuscript, moving from broader to specific information.

  • (v) Introduction is regarded as the start of the storyline of manuscript, and hence, the three Cs' scheme ( Figure 5 ) becomes more relevant while writing it: the context in terms of what has been published on the current idea/problem around the world, content as to what you are going to do about the problem in hand (rationale), and conclusion as to how it is going to be done (specific objective of the study) [ 1 , 23 ].
  • (vi) Introduction is the first section of the main manuscript, which talks about the story; therefore, while writing it authors should always try to think that “would this introduction be able to convince my readers?” [ 25 ]. To emphasize on the importance of the study in filling the knowledge gap is pivotal in driving the message through [ 23 ].
  • (vii) Introduction should never be written like a review, any details, contexts, and comparisons should be dealt within the discussion part [ 16 ].
  • (viii) While choosing the papers, it is wise to include the essential and recent studies only. Studies more than 10 years old should be avoided, as editors are inclined towards the recent and relevant ones only [ 20 , 22 ].
  • (ix) In the last paragraph, enlisting the objectives has a good impact on readers. A clear distinction between the primary and secondary objectives of the study should be made while closing the introduction [ 22 ].
  • (i) It is regarded as the skeleton of the manuscript as it contains information about the research done. An effective methods section should provide information about two essential aspects of the research—(a) precise description of how experiments were done and (b) rationale for choosing the specific experiments.
  • Study Settings: describing the area or setting where the study was conducted. This description should cover the details relevant to the study topic.

Different guidelines available for perusal of the authors for writing an effective manuscript.

  • Sample Size and Sampling Technique: mentioning what number of samples is needed and how they would be collected.
  • Ethical Approvals: clearly identifying the study approval body or board and proper collection of informed consent from participants.
  • Recruitment Methods: using at least three criteria for the inclusion or exclusion of the study subjects to reach an agreed sample size.
  • Experimental and Intervention Details: exhaustively describing each and every detail of all the experiments and intervention carried out in the study for the readers to reproduce independently.
  • Statistical Analysis: mentioning all statistical analysis carried out with the data which include all descriptive and inferential statistics and providing the analysis in meaningful statistical values such as mean, median, percent, standard deviation (SD), probability value (p), odds ratio (OR), and confidence interval (CI).

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Object name is BRI2022-1492058.007.jpg

Methods and the seven areas which it should exhaustively describe.

  • (iii) Methods should be elaborative enough that the readers are able to replicate the study on their own. If, however, the protocols are frequently used ones and are already available in the literature, the authors can cite them without providing any exhaustive details [ 26 ].
  • (iv) Methods should be able to answer the three questions for which audience reads the paper—(1) What was done? (2) Where it was done? and (3) How it was done? [ 11 ].
  • (v) Remember, methods section is all about “HOW” the data were collected contrary to “WHAT” data were collected, which should be written in the results section. Therefore, care should be taken in providing the description of the tools and techniques used for this purpose.
  • (vi) Writing of the methods section should essentially follow the guidelines as per the study design right from the ideation of the project. There are numerous guidelines available, which author's must make use of, to streamline the writing of the methods section in particular (see Table xx for details).
  • (vii) Provision of the information of the equipment, chemicals, reagents, and physical conditions is also vital for the readers for replication of the study. If any software is used for data analysis, it is imperative to mention it. All manufacturer's names, their city, and country should also be provided [ 6 , 11 ].
  • The purpose of the results section of the manuscript is to present the finding of the study in clear, concise, and objective manner to the readers [ 7 , 27 , 28 ].
  • Results section makes the heart of the manuscript, as all sections revolve around it. The reported findings should be in concordance with the objectives of the study and be able to answer the questions raised in the introduction [ 6 , 20 , 27 ].
  • Results should be written in past tense without any interpretation [ 6 , 27 ].

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Interdependence between methods and results of the manuscript.

  • It is always better to take refuge in tables and figures to drive the exhaustive data through. Repetition of the data already carried in tables, figures, etc., should be avoided [ 4 , 6 , 20 ].
  • Proper positioning and citations of the tables and figures within the main text are also critical for the flow of information and quality of the manuscript [ 6 , 11 ].
  • Results section should carry clear descriptive and inferential statistics in tables and/or figures, for ease of reference to readers.
  • Provision of the demographic data of the study participants takes priority in the results section; therefore, it should be made as its first paragraph. The subsequent paragraphs should introduce the inferential analysis of the data based on the rationale and objectives of the study. The last paragraphs mention what new results the study is going to offer [ 6 , 11 , 20 ].
  • authors should not attempt to report all analysis of the data. Discussing, interpreting, or contextualizing the results should be avoided [ 20 ].

10. Discussion

  • (i) The main purpose of writing a discussion is to fill the gap that was identified in the introduction of the manuscript and provide true interpretations of the results [ 6 , 11 , 20 ].

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Pyramid scheme followed while writing the discussion section of manuscript, moving from the key results of the study to the specific conclusions.

  • (iii) Discussion section toggles between two things—content and context. The authors need to exhaustively describe their interpretation of the analyzed data (content) and then compare it with the available relevant literature (context) [ 1 , 29 ]. Finally, it should justify everything in conclusion as to what all this means for the field of study.
  • (iv) The comparison can either be concordant or discordant, but it needs to highlight the uniqueness and importance of the study in the field. Care should be taken not to cover up any deviant results, which do not gel with the current literature [ 30 ].
  • (v) In discussion it is safe to use words such as “may,” “might,” “show,” “demonstrate,” “suggest,” and “report” while impressing upon your study's data and analyzed results.
  • (vi) Putting results in context helps in identifying the strengths and weakness of the study and enables readers to get answers to two important questions—one “what are the implications of the study?” Second “how the study advance the field further?” [ 1 , 30 ].
  • The first paragraph of the discussion is reserved for highlighting the key results of the study as briefly as possible [ 4 , 6 ]. However, care should be taken not to have any redundancy with the results section. The authors should utilize this part to emphasize the originality and significance of their results in the field [ 1 , 4 , 11 , 20 ].
  • The second paragraph should deal with the importance of your study in relationship with other studies available in the literature [ 4 ].
  • Subsequent paragraphs should focus on the context, by describing the findings in comparison with other similar studies in the field and how the gap in the knowledge has been filled [ 1 , 4 ].
  • In the penultimate paragraph, authors need to highlight the strengths and limitations of the study [ 4 , 6 , 30 ].
  • Final paragraph of the discussion is usually reserved for drawing the generalized conclusions for the readers to get a single take-home message.
  • (viii) A well-balanced discussion is the one that effectively addresses the contribution made by this study towards the advancement of knowledge in general and the field of research in particular [ 7 ]. It essentially should carry enough information that the audience knows how to apply the new interpretation presented within that field.

11. Conclusion

  • It usually makes the last part of the manuscript, if not already covered within the discussion part [ 6 , 20 ].
  • Being the last part of the main text, it has a long-lasting impact on the reader and hence should be very clear in presenting the chief findings of the paper as per the rationale and objectives of the study [ 4 , 20 ].

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Crux of the conclusion section.

12. References or Bibliography

  • Every article needs a suitable and relevant citation of the available literature to carry the contextual message of their results to the readers [ 31 ].
  • Inclusion of proper references in the required format, as asked by the target journal, is necessary.

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Object name is BRI2022-1492058.011.jpg

A Google Scholar screenshot of different styles of formatting of references.

  • Depending upon the journal and publishing house, usually, 30–50 citations are allowed in an original study, and they need to be relevant and recent.

13. Organization of the Manuscript Package

Ideally, all manuscripts, no matter where they have to be submitted, should follow an approved organization, which is universally used by all publication houses. “Ready to submit” manuscript package should include the following elements:

  • (i) Cover letter, addressed to the chief editor of the target journal.
  • (ii) Authorship file, containing the list of authors, their affiliations, emails, and ORCIDs.
  • (iii) Title page, containing three things—title, abstract, and keywords.
  • Main text structured upon IMRAD scheme.
  • References as per required format.
  • Legends to all tables and figures.
  • Miscellaneous things such as author contributions, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest, funding body, and ethical approvals.
  • (v) Tables as a separate file in excel format.
  • (vi) Figures or illustrations, each as a separate file in JPEG or TIFF format [ 32 ].
  • (vii) Reviewers file, containing names of the suggested peer reviewers working or publishing in the same field.
  • (viii) Supplementary files, which can be raw data files, ethical clearance from Institutional Review Board (IRBs), appendixes, etc.

14. Overview of an Editorial Process

Each scientific journal has a specific publication policies and procedures, which govern the numerous steps of the publication process. In general, all publication houses process the submission of manuscripts via multiple steps tightly controlled by the editors and reviewers [ 33 ]. Figure 12 provides general overview of the six-step editorial process of the scientific journal.

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An overview of the journal's editorial process.

15. Summary

The basic criteria for writing any scientific communication are to know how to communicate the information effectively. In this review, we have provided the critical information of do's and don'ts for the naive authors to follow in making their manuscript enough impeccable and error-free that on submission manuscript is not desk rejected at all. but this goes with mentioning that like any other skill, and the writing is also honed by practicing and is always reflective of the knowledge the writer possesses. Additionally, an effective manuscript is always based on the study design and the statistical analysis done. The authors should always bear in mind that editors apart from looking into the novelty of the study also look at how much pain authors have taken in writing, following guidelines, and formatting the manuscript. Therefore, the organization of the manuscript as per provided guidelines such as IMRAD, CONSORT, and PRISMA should be followed in letter and spirit. Care should be taken to avoid the mistakes, already enlisted, which can be the cause of desk rejection. As a general rule, before submission of the manuscript to the journal, sanitation check involving at least two reviews by colleagues should be carried out to ensure all general formatting guidelines are followed.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank all academicians and researchers who have actively participated in the “Writing Manuscript Workshops” at the College of Medicine, KSAU-HS, Jeddah, which prompted them to write this review.

Data Availability

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

ebook ∣ Write Right!

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Write Right!

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01 August 2014

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  • How to Write a Research Paper

By using small simple exercises and feedback this book aims to develop the practical and analytical skills needed to write a good research paper or a research chapter in a dissertation – assignments that many undergraduate and M.Sc. students at University face.

These skills include:-

  • Understanding the difference between a research paper and an essay.
  • Helping you develop ideas for your research paper.
  • Learning how to find the research papers you will need.
  • Developing your understanding of research papers.
  • Develop an understanding of research methods, experimental design and bad science so you will have the skills to evaluate research for yourself.
  • Develop the writing skills needed to write your research paper.

Many books already exist to help with basic writing skills or even academic writing. Unlike those texts this book will focus solely on the skills required to write a research paper. Each chapter incorporates small exercises with solutions and feedback provided.

  • Research – A Common Misunderstanding
  • What is Research?
  • What is Knowledge?
  • A Simplified Scientific Process
  • A Hypothesis…a Testable Theory
  • The Differences between Research Papers and Books
  • Research Papers are Scary
  • The Differences Continued
  • Good Quality Sources
  • Research Sources Ranked in Decreasing Order of Quality
  • How You Demonstrate the Use of Good Quality Sources
  • Researchers Change the World
  • Astronomy Research
  • Business Research
  • Computing Research
  • Construction Research
  • Engineering Research
  • Environmental Research
  • Humanities Research
  • Medical Research
  • Military Research
  • Psychology Research
  • Science Research (Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Mathematics)
  • Robotics Research
  • Space, Aircraft and Automotive Research
  • Sports Research
  • Technology Research
  • Your Contribution to a Changing World
  • An Unexpected Starting Point
  • Choosing a General Topic for your Research Paper
  • Tools for Finding Research Papers
  • Learning How to Find Research Papers
  • How to Find a Coherent Set of Research Papers
  • Choosing a Title for Your Research Paper
  • Choosing a Title for a Dissertation Research Chapter
  • Other Resource Discovery Services such as the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ)
  • Research…an analogy
  • Scientific Method
  • Scientific Principles
  • Controlled Experiments
  • Empirical Research
  • Basic Research Criteria
  • Basic Research vs Applied Research
  • Qualitative vs Quantitative Research
  • Project Types
  • Alternatives to Laboratory Based Experiments
  • Data used to Generate a Hypothesis Cannot be Used to Verify the Hypothesis
  • Testing the Null Hypothesis
  • Testing Our Understanding of the Concepts
  • Flawed Research
  • Understanding What a Research Paper Looks Like
  • Not All Research Papers Are The Same…
  • What Role do Experiments Play in Research?
  • Definition of an Experiment
  • Designing an Experiment
  • Setting up an Experiment
  • Recording the Results
  • Can We Trust the Results?
  • Analysis of the Results
  • Reaching Conclusions
  • Different Types of Experiment
  • Considering Different Types of Experiment
  • More Detailed Experimental Design
  • Scepticism is Good and Science is Essential
  • But What about Bad Science?
  • Bad Science
  • Evaluating the Science
  • Poor Methodology…
  • Examples of Good or Bad Methodology
  • Big or Small Question Mark ? or ?
  • Flawed Discussion of Results…
  • An Example Discussion of the Results
  • False Positives verses False Negatives
  • Unjustified Conclusions…
  • An Example of a Researchers Conclusions
  • Accepting Conclusions as Valid
  • Learning More about Critical Evaluation
  • One Additional Thought…
  • What is Plagiarism?
  • Citations and References
  • The British or Harvard System
  • The Reference List
  • The Impact of this on the Body of Your Research Paper
  • The Difference between a Reference List and a Bibliography
  • Moving from Opinion to Reasoned Argument
  • Presenting Relevant Conclusions
  • Considering Critical Evaluation
  • Practising Comparative Analysis
  • Practising Application of the Theory
  • A Path Through the Forest
  • Drafting, Drafting, Drafting
  • A Day Starts by Getting out of Bed
  • Define General Structure and Headings
  • Write a Rough Introduction in Note Form
  • summarise one research paper)
  • Add the Other Descriptive Sections
  • Evolve and Refine the Structure of Your Paper
  • Draft the Evaluation Sections
  • Drafting the Comparative Analysis and the Application of the Theory
  • Draft the Conclusions
  • Drafting the Abstract
  • Refine, Refine, Refine
  • Feedback from a Critical Friend
  • Your Own Brain Can Trick You
  • Check Formatting, Citations and References
  • An Introduction as a Funnel
  • Using Those Less Relevant Papers
  • Considering Two Introductions
  • Considering the Structure of Your Paper
  • Considering Your Evaluation Sections
  • Considering Where You Compare the Theories
  • Considering the Application of the Theory
  • Considering the Conclusions
  • Testing the Quality of Your Paper
  • An Abstract Is Not An Introduction
  • Good and Bad Abstracts
  • The Similarities between a Research Paper and a Research Chapter
  • The Differences between a Research Paper and a Research Chapter
  • The Length of a Research Chapter
  • The Impact of the Research on a Project
  • Evaluating the Impact of the Research
  • Practical Projects Verses Research Projects
  • In Conclusion

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Writing an Academic Paper in English

Intermediate Level

  • Adrian Wallwork 0

English for Academics, Pisa, Italy

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Insights based on 30 years experience editing papers for publication in peer-reviewed journals

Exercises based on 1000+ hours of teaching scientific English and English for Academic Purposes (EAP)

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Part of the book series: English for Academic Research (EAR)

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Table of contents (11 chapters)

Front matter, getting started.

Adrian Wallwork

Introduction and Review of the Literature

Introduction: part 2, discussion part 1, discussion part 2, conclusions, abstracts part 1, abstracts part 2 and titles, how to write and structure a paper: a very brief summary, back matter.

This book is for university students, with at least a mid-intermediate level of English.

It can be used as part of an English for Academic Purposes (EAP) course, either alone or with the companion volume Giving an Academic Presentation in English.

The chapters are independent so that EAP teachers and students can choose those sections that best fit their needs. This means that a course can range from a minimum of 20 hours, up to 60 hours or more.

There is an introductory chapter that includes what role academics play in today’s world, where success is not just measured in terms of paper output but also involvement in interdisciplinary projects and supporting society at large.

Each chapter covers a particular section of a paper (Abstract, Introduction, Methods etc) and begins with a discussion exercise on what the exact purpose of each section is. This purpose is also highlighted by comparisons with non-academic situations where similar skills are required. There are many examples and templates – none of which are lengthy or complex - but which are designed to highlight key points.

Students learn what style to adopt (we vs impersonal), the correct tenses to use in each section, typical mistakes, and useful phrases.

The course is highly practical and is also designed to be fun to use.

Other books in the series:

Giving an Academic Presentation in English

Adrian Wallwork is the author of more than 40 ELT and EAP textbooks. He has trained several thousand PhD students and researchers from around 50 countries to write research papers and give presentations. He is also the co-founder of e4ac.com, an editing agency for non-native English-speaking researchers.

  • research papers
  • readability
  • manuscript preparation

Adrian Wallwork is the co-founder of English for Academics (e4ac.com), which specializes in editing and revising scientific papers, as well as teaching English for Academic Purposes (EAP) to PhD students. He has written course books for Oxford University Press, discussion books for Cambridge University Press, and other books for BEP and Scholastic and several publishers in Italy. Adrian also self-publishes discussion books for the TEFL market (tefldiscussions.com). 

For SpringerNature, he has written three series of books on Academic English, Business English and General English.

His passion is teaching PhD students and researchers how to write and present their research

Book Title : Writing an Academic Paper in English

Book Subtitle : Intermediate Level

Authors : Adrian Wallwork

Series Title : English for Academic Research

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-95615-8

Publisher : Springer Cham

eBook Packages : Education , Education (R0)

Copyright Information : The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-030-95614-1 Published: 26 June 2022

eBook ISBN : 978-3-030-95615-8 Published: 25 June 2022

Series ISSN : 2625-3445

Series E-ISSN : 2625-3453

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : VII, 200

Number of Illustrations : 174 b/w illustrations, 3 illustrations in colour

Topics : Linguistics, general , Language Education

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English for Writing Research Papers

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Adrian Wallwork

English for Writing Research Papers 2011th Edition, Kindle Edition

  • ISBN-13 978-1441979216
  • Edition 2011th
  • Sticky notes Not Enabled
  • Publisher Springer
  • Publication date April 1, 2011
  • Language English
  • File size 4859 KB
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writing research paper epub

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English for Presentations at International Conferences (English for Academic Research)

Editorial Reviews

From the reviews:

“The 308 pages are divided into 20 parts and each part is then further divided into sub chapters each of which is titled with a question or simple statement … . Most chapters therefore are short and to the point and effectively deal with an extremely finite aspect of writing … . This would be a useful book for those starting out on the research trail and for those struggling to get their work published.” (ICS News, Vol. 7 (2), July, 2011)

“This book is that it focuses not just on how to write each section of a paper … but also on how to write clear, concise, unambiguous English … . It tells the students all kind of things that I have not found in other books on this topic … . I really recommend this book not just to students but also to EAP teachers … . written in a way that can be understood by students with an upper intermediate level of English.” (Louise Sutherland, Amazon, May, 2011)

From the Back Cover

About the author.

Adrian Wallwork is the author of more than 20 ELT and EAP textbooks. He has trained several thousand PhD students and academics from 35 countries to prepare and give presentations. Since 1984 he has been revising research papers, and in 2009 he set up englishforacademics.com – a proofreading and editing service specifically for researchers.

Product details

  • ASIN ‏ : ‎ B008I37B80
  • Publisher ‏ : ‎ Springer; 2011th edition (April 1, 2011)
  • Publication date ‏ : ‎ April 1, 2011
  • Language ‏ : ‎ English
  • File size ‏ : ‎ 4859 KB
  • Text-to-Speech ‏ : ‎ Not enabled
  • Enhanced typesetting ‏ : ‎ Not Enabled
  • X-Ray ‏ : ‎ Not Enabled
  • Word Wise ‏ : ‎ Enabled
  • Sticky notes ‏ : ‎ Not Enabled
  • Print length ‏ : ‎ 325 pages
  • #256 in Biochemistry (Kindle Store)
  • #671 in Language Experience Approach Education
  • #1,266 in Education Research (Kindle Store)

About the author

writing research paper epub

Adrian Wallwork

Adrian Wallwork is a published author (ELT and EAP) who lives and works in Pisa, Italy. He has written 20 books on academic / professional English for Springer Science (1.35 million chapter downloads), four general English books for the BBC, four course books (+ WBs and TBs) for Oxford University Press, four discussion books for Cambridge University Press and Scholastic, as well as grammar manuals and phrasebooks for Rizzoli, De Agostini and Vallardi.

2019 saw the publication of five books in his new series of Discussion books, with a further five to be published in 2020. For details: tefldiscussions.com

Adrian is the owner of English for Academics (e4ac.com) a scientific editing agency that revises and edits research manuscripts. E4AC edit around 1.5 million words per year for clients in China, England, France, Germany, Iran, Iraq, Italy, South Korea, Sweden, Switzerland, and Vietnam.

Adrian also teaches academic/scientific English to international PhD students.

His personal mission is also to teach the 350 million native English speakers to communicate more effectively (i.e. to speak slowly and clearly) to the 1.8 billion non-native speakers is finally off the ground. In 2018 he published a book on this topic, Communicating in English Across Borders, with Business Expert Press - the first ever of its kind.

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Critical Writing Program: Decision Making - Spring 2024: Researching the White Paper

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Research the White Paper

Researching the White Paper:

The process of researching and composing a white paper shares some similarities with the kind of research and writing one does for a high school or college research paper. What’s important for writers of white papers to grasp, however, is how much this genre differs from a research paper.  First, the author of a white paper already recognizes that there is a problem to be solved, a decision to be made, and the job of the author is to provide readers with substantive information to help them make some kind of decision--which may include a decision to do more research because major gaps remain. 

Thus, a white paper author would not “brainstorm” a topic. Instead, the white paper author would get busy figuring out how the problem is defined by those who are experiencing it as a problem. Typically that research begins in popular culture--social media, surveys, interviews, newspapers. Once the author has a handle on how the problem is being defined and experienced, its history and its impact, what people in the trenches believe might be the best or worst ways of addressing it, the author then will turn to academic scholarship as well as “grey” literature (more about that later).  Unlike a school research paper, the author does not set out to argue for or against a particular position, and then devote the majority of effort to finding sources to support the selected position.  Instead, the author sets out in good faith to do as much fact-finding as possible, and thus research is likely to present multiple, conflicting, and overlapping perspectives. When people research out of a genuine desire to understand and solve a problem, they listen to every source that may offer helpful information. They will thus have to do much more analysis, synthesis, and sorting of that information, which will often not fall neatly into a “pro” or “con” camp:  Solution A may, for example, solve one part of the problem but exacerbate another part of the problem. Solution C may sound like what everyone wants, but what if it’s built on a set of data that have been criticized by another reliable source?  And so it goes. 

For example, if you are trying to write a white paper on the opioid crisis, you may focus on the value of  providing free, sterilized needles--which do indeed reduce disease, and also provide an opportunity for the health care provider distributing them to offer addiction treatment to the user. However, the free needles are sometimes discarded on the ground, posing a danger to others; or they may be shared; or they may encourage more drug usage. All of those things can be true at once; a reader will want to know about all of these considerations in order to make an informed decision. That is the challenging job of the white paper author.     
 The research you do for your white paper will require that you identify a specific problem, seek popular culture sources to help define the problem, its history, its significance and impact for people affected by it.  You will then delve into academic and grey literature to learn about the way scholars and others with professional expertise answer these same questions. In this way, you will create creating a layered, complex portrait that provides readers with a substantive exploration useful for deliberating and decision-making. You will also likely need to find or create images, including tables, figures, illustrations or photographs, and you will document all of your sources. 

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  24. Researching the White Paper

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